[December 10] Leopold I, king of the Belgians

Full Name: Leopold Georg Christian Friedrich
Parents: Franz, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and Augusta Reuß
Date of Birth: 16 December 1790
House: Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (Wettin)
Spouse(s): (1) Charlotte, daughter of George IV, king of the United Kingdom, and Caroline of Brunswick, then (2) Louise, daughter of Louis-Philippe, king of the French, and Maria Amalia of the Two Sicilies
Reign: 1831 – 1865

Brief: Last of a family of children, Leopold should never have risen to the rank of king, outpacing his siblings and parents in titles. During the Napoleonic Wars, Leopold rose to the rank of major general before fleeing to Russia to command troops for the Russian Empire. By 1815, he was also a lieutenant general in Russia. In 1816, he married the daughter and heir of George IV of the United Kingdom, but the princess died the following year. George still acknowledged Leopold as a British royal prince, though, out of respect. In the late 1820s, Leopold was offered the throne of Greece, but declined it. A few years later, in 1830, he was offered the throne of a new Belgian kingdom that had recently proclaimed independence from the Netherlands during the July Revolutions. He accepted the offer becoming Leopold I, then went about fighting off attacks from the Netherlands for the next eight years. For the rest of his reign, Leopold largely took a back seat to allow his advisors to rule for him, though he did actively pursue a reduction in child and female labor in manufacturing. He died at the age of 74 in Laeken and was buried at the royal vault at the church there.
Date of Death: 10 December 1865

Successor: Leopold II

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Herman I, duke of Swabia (949)
• Michael IV, emperor of Constantinople (1041)
• René II, duke of Lorraine (1508)

[November 13] Albert II, margrave of Meissen

Local Name: Albrecht II
Surnamed: "The Degenerate" (Der Entartete)
Parents: Henry III, margrave of Meissen, and Constantia of Austria
Born: 1240
House: Wettin
Spouse(s): (1) Margaret, daughter of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, and Isabella of England, then (2) Kunigarde, daughter of Otto of Eisenberg, then (3) Elisabeth, heiress of Nordhalben
Predecessor: Henry III

Reign: 1288 – 1292
Brief: Albert II enters the history books as the landgrave of Thuringia and the count palatine of Saxony in 1265. His father, Henry III, retained Meissen until his death in 1288. A younger brother received smaller portions of the domain. In 1274, Albert married his mistress and attempted to deprive his legitimate children from the succession, sparking a short civil war within Saxony. With the deaths of an uncle, Theodoric, and Henry III, the succession dispute became acute since the fighting expanded over all of Meissen. In 1288, Albert was captured by his eldest surviving son, Frederick, forcing the Treaty of Rochlitz which deprived the margrave of much of his lands. Meissen itself Albert retained until 1292 when he sold it to his nephew, Frederick Tuta, in defiance of his own children. He further angered his children by selling Thuringia to the German King Adolf of Nassau. When Albert finally died in 1314, Albert I, the new German king, claimed the territory for himself via the old treaty. Albert finally resolved the issues with his son when his son married the daughter of his step-mother, thereby uniting both halves of the family. His death in 1305 pushed Albert over the edge. He gave up any remaining claims to his lands and handed them to Frederick, dying several years later at Erfurt.

Date of Death: 13 November 1314
Successor: Frederick I

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Nicholas I, pope of Rome (867)
• Malcolm III, king of Scotland (1093)
• Fulk, king of Jerusalem (1143)
• Albert I, margrave of Brandenburg (1170)
• Ivan II, grand prince of Moscow (1359)
• Franz Joseph II, prince of Liechtenstein (1989)

[September 12] John George III, elector of Saxony

Parents: John George II, elector of Saxony, and Magdalene Sybille of Brandenburg-Bayreuth
House: Wettin
Born: 20 June 1647
Spouse(s): Anna Sophie, daughter of Frederick III, king of Denmark, and Sophie Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg
Predecessor: John George II

Reign: 1680 – 1691
Brief: A soldier king from the start of his reign, John George III was a staunch ally of the Habsburgs against the France of King Louis XIV. He established the first standing army in Saxony and used it to support Emperor Leopold I in his wars against the Ottoman Empire and France. While he did not join in the League of Augsburg, he fought against the French in the Nine Years' War. He died from an epidemic of Cholera or Plague and was buried in the Cathedral of Freiberg.

Date of Death: 12 September 1691

Successor: John George IV

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Andronikos I, emperor of Constantinople (1185)
• Peter II, king of Aragón (1213)
• Innocent VI, pope of Rome (1362)
• Albert III, duke of Saxony (1500)
• Vasili IV, tsar of Russia (1612)
• Afonso VI, king of Portugal (1683)

[May 5] Frederick Augustus I, king of Saxony

True Name: Frederick Augustus Joseph Maria Anton Johann Nepomuk Aloys Xavier
Parents: Frederick Christian, elector of Saxony, and Maria Antonia of Bavaria

Date of Birth: 23 December 1750

House: Wettin
Spouse: Amalie, daughter of Frederick Michael, count palatine of Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld-Bischweiler, and Maria Francisca of Palatine-Sulzbach

Predecessor: Frederick Christian

Reign: 1806 – 1827

Summary: Saxony was a Holy Roman Imperial Electorate when Frederick Augustus was born in 1750, and it remained so for many years of his early reign. Frederick was a minority when he became elector, so his mother, Maria Antonia, ruled as regent until 1768 when Frederick turned eighteen. His uncle, Franz Xavier, served as his representative in international affairs and, in 1765, was instrumental in handing the Polish throne to Stanislaw August, a relative of the Saxon ruler. Frederick Augustus, however, was named heir to Stanislaw according to the Polish constitution. Frederick eventually declined the Polish throne in 1798 due to conflicts with Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Saxony sided with the French monarchists in 1791 after the French Revolution started but he did not go so far to sign a treaty stating as much. Frederick wanted to stay out of the growing conflict between France, Prussia, and Austria. But Austria would have none of it. In a formal proclamation by the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, Austria was demanding unilateral warfare against France. Saxons avoided most of the fighting and managed to renege on their obligations in 1796 after Prussia pulled out of the alliance. Between 1797 and 1803, Frederick personally refused to accept new land exchanges and new constitutional amendments to the Holy Roman Empire and its charter, fearing that imperial order was falling apart. He also refused to join Napoleon I's Confederation of the Rhine, which led to the breakup of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. Fearing French encroachment, Frederick joined in alliance with Prussia against France and at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, Saxony was soundly defeated. Frederick was forced to join the Confederacy and surrender land to the new Kingdom of Westphalia. In exchange, Saxony was elevated to the status of kingdom with Bavaria and Württemberg. In 1807, he was also named Duke of Warsaw.

Frederick Augustus did not relish being a member of France's puppet Confederacy. He was constantly forced to make territorial revisions and Poland was constantly harassed by Austria. In 1812, Frederick Augustus proclaimed the Kingdom of Poland, which upset Napoleon and the Austrians. During the 1813 War of Liberation, Saxony became the battlefield of nations. Over a million soldiers came to Saxony to fight and Frederick could do nothing but watch, fearing retribution from either side should he choose the wrong side. Yet by the end of the year, Frederick had joined sides with the other German powers and been caught between a rock and a hard place. Napoleon recalled him and forced the king to side with the French in the battle. The Germans were unable to dislodge Napoleon from Saxony. Yet every time Saxon soldiers fought against Germans, increasing numbers would defect with Frederick's secret blessing. At the Battle of Leipzig, the Saxon armies remained on the French side, but many defectors fought for the Germans. Napoleon was defeated and the Congress of Vienna commenced. Frederick was taken into custody as an enemy of the state. Poland was confiscated from him and given to the Russians. Saxony was reduced to half its size, in fear that Prussia would grow too large otherwise, but Frederick was allowed to remain as king. The Saxons praised his return but those Saxons now finding themselves in Prussian territory were bitter at their sudden separation. Frederick Augustus spent the final years of his life ruling in a conservative manner, neglecting reform movements and modernizing the economy, which would come to bite his successor, Anthony, in the behind. Frederick died in 1827 and was buried at the Catholic Cathedral in Dresden.

Date of Death: 5 May 1827

Successor: Anthony

Other Monarch Deaths:

Galerius, emperor of Rome (311)

Alfonso V, king of Castile, León, and Galicia (1028)

Casimir II, king of Poland (1194)

Leo II, king of Armenia (1219)

Charles II, king of Naples (1309)

Frederick IIII, elector of Saxony (1525)

Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1705)

Napoleon I, emperor of the French (1821)

[April 27] John George IV, elector of Saxony

Parents: John George III, elector of Saxony, and Anna Sophie of Denmark

Date of Birth: 18 October 1668

House: Wettin
Spouse: Eleonore Erdmuthe, daughter of John George I, duke of Saxe-Eisenach, and Joanna of Sayn-Wittgenstein

Predecessor: John George III

Reign: 1681 — 1684

Summary: Born the eldest son of John George III, the Holy Roman Imperial elector of Saxony, John George IV was destined to be a leader. During his youth, John George fell in love with a minor noble, Magdalena Sibylla, who may have been John George III's illegitimate daughter and, thus, John George IV's half-sister. Despite the rumor, the young prince continued his relationship with Madgalena and, after he became elector in September 1691, lived with her openly. She was declared the Official Mistress in 1692.

Soon after his election to the electorate, John George IV's chief advisor, Hans Adam von Schöning, suggested unifying Saxony and Brandeburg and turning against Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I. John George agreed and withdrew Saxon troops from the Imperial army, prompting Leopold to capture Schöning and imprison him indefinitely. John George finally relented and returned Saxon troops to the army in 1693. John George was forced to marry Eleonore Erdmuthe in 1692 by his mother, who sought to continue the Wettin bloodline through her son. His mother also had the ulterior motive of separating John George from his Madgalena. It backfired, though, as John George instead simply relegated his wife to the back burner, humiliating her publicly and allowing her to reside in the electoral palace while he moved to a country estate with his mistress. John George eventually tried to murder his wife but was stopped by his younger brother, Frederick Augustus. The brother was wounded from the encounter for the rest of his life. John George had his mistress elevated to the rank of countess by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1693 and she bore a baby girl soon after. Within months, though, Magdalena died of smallpox and the elector also became infected. He died less than a month later. The elector was succeeded by his brother, Frederick Augustus (who was also king of Poland as Augustus II). He took care of his illegitimate niece and eventually married her to a Polish count.

Date of Death: 27 April 1694

Successor: Frederick Augustus I

Other Monarch Deaths:

Ardashir III, king of Persia (630)

Philip II, duke of Burgundy (14040

Leo XI, pope of Rome (1605)

The Complex History of the Bulgarian Empires (Bulgaria)

The dynastic history of Bulgaria is something I had not intended but was compelled to do following a series of short conversations with a Bulgarian work-and-travel co-worker of mine. Quite a while ago, I inventoried in my royal genealogical files the tsars of Bulgaria, a series of monarchs who ruled periodically from the 10th to the 20th century in some fashion or another. To my surprise, my Bulgarian co-worker expressly denounced any such monarchy on two occasions, despite the fact that I had researched it fairly deeply many years ago. Thus, the basis for today's long-awaited dynastology  is established.

Indeed, Bulgaria has a most interesting dynastic history and one that should not be overlooked. Despite its modern placement in the far-south-eastern corner of Europe — between European Turkey, Greece, Macedonia, Serbia, Romania, and the Black Sea — it once spanned an empire that encompassed most of the Ukraine. The Bulgars historically were people of probably Turkic origin infused with a heavy dose of Persian.  Over time, the dominant Slavic migratory groups supplanted first the proto-Bulgarian languages and later the ethnicity itself. Thus, all Bulgarians today descend primarily from Slavs though they may retain some ancient Bulgarian blood. The modern region of Bulgaria was a nexus of Greek, Roman, Gothic, Hun, Slavic and Celtic cultures and thus elements of all can be found in modern Bulgarian society. Of the original Bulgar invaders, it is thought that they consisted of a relatively small group who mostly interbred with the native population.

Dulo Dynasty (681 – 753) & the First Bulgarian Empire
The history of Bulgaria begins with the ruler, Asparuh, who founded the First Bulgarian Empire around 681 CE. While he is often titled "khan", the Turkic title for king, it is unlikely he or his successors took that title. Asparuh was the second son of a Bulgar ruler, Kubrat of the Dulo clan, who ruled a large kingdom called Great Bulgaria in the Ukraine. After his death, his eldest son ruled for a short while before the region fell to the Khazars in 668. After this point, Bulgaria became associated solely with the region on either side of the Danube River from roughly modern-day Belgrade to the Black Sea. This immigration pushed into previously Byzantine lands. The Byzantines were distracted by attempted to fight back, but failing morale in 681 led to a treaty that was later seen as the establishment of the Bulgarian state in the Balkans.

The Foundation of the Bulgarian Empire

Kubrat was the first Orthodox Christian Bulgarian monarch. While it is unknown whether Asparuh was Christian, his son, Tervel, certainly was. Tervel allied with the Byzantine emperor, Justinian II, and helped him reclaim his throne from the usurpers Leontius and Tiberius III. In exchange for this, Justinian crowned Tervel Kaisar (Tsar) of Bulgaria, making Tervel the first foreign monarch to ever receive the Roman title. In addition, Justinian ceded additional lands to Bulgaria. Despite problems between the two countries, they banded together in 718 and routed the Arabs during the Siege of Constantinople. For this aide, Tervel was added the title "Saviour of Europe" by contemporary historians. Since Byzantine histories are the primary sources for early Bulgarian history, it is thought that the Dulo Dynasty maintained a relative peace after 718. Kormesiy succeeded his father, Tervel, around 721 and little is known about him, though he may have been deposed. Sevar, his son, succeeded him but was also later deposed. Following his deposition, the Dulo Dynasty fell and was replaced by the Vokil Dynasty.

Vokil Dynasty (753 – 762)
Kormisosh was the first ruler of the Vokil Dynasty and he began a long period of political instability in the First Bulgarian Empire. The Byzantine Empire had decided to defend its western borders with Bulgaria by moving Armenians and Syrians into nearby Thrace. Kormisosh was so enraged by this obvious threat that he invaded the Empire and laid a short siege to Constantinople which unfortunately backfired on the Bulgarians as they were defeated and forced to flee, ultimately ending with Kormisosh's death through a palace coup which replaced the ruler with his kinsman, Vinekh. Vinekh held his ground against the Byzantines but ultimately failed to win the day. Though Vinekh managed to finally defeat the Byzantine army, he failed to pursue the fleeing army and, in response, was killed with his entire family by the Bulgarian nobility.

Non-Dynastic Period (762 – 803)
A period of intense confusion followed the end of the Vokil Dynasty. Telets, a member of the Ugain clan, claimed the leadership of the Bulgarian Empire for three years during which time Bulgaria lost a battle to the Byzantines and the nobles, in turned, lynched Telets for his defeat. His successor, Sabin, was a relative of the Dulo Dynasty and attempted to make peace with the Byzantines. However, when this peace offer was discovered, the Bulgarian nobility rebelled and Sabin fled to Constantinople. His successor, Umor of the Vokil Dynasty, lasted only 40 days before also fleeing to the Byzantine Empire to find sanctuary. Toktu adopted, instead, a hostile policy against the Byzantines but was murdered before ever being able to implement it. His successor, Pagan, tried again for peace but was betrayed by the Byzantines and also murdered after the Byzantines penetrated to the middle of the Bulgarian Empire. With the Byzantines now on the offensive, Telerig sued for peace and succeeded, but was forced to flee to Constantinople just as his peaceful predecessor had, later being baptized and renamed Theophylaktos prior to marrying a relative of the Byzantine Emperor. The instability of Bulgaria ultimately ended in the reign of Kardam, who took the mantel of leadership in 777. Between 791 and 792, the Bulgarians decisively defeated the Byzantine Empire multiple times and the Bulgarians pressed their advantage, forcing tribute to be paid. A palace coup in Constantinople ended further aggression to the Bulgarian Empire for a short time and allowed a restoration of the Dulo Dynasty through the nephew of Kardam, Krum.

Dulo Dynasty (803 – 977)
The Dulo Dynasty was restored upon the death of Kardam and the empire thrived during this time. The empire expanded northward to encompass all of modern Romania, Moldova, and most of Hungary. Indeed, for a short while the empire shared a border with the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne. Interestingly, Bulgaria was also under constant attack from the Byzantines. This allowed Krum his greatest victory: over the many invasions, Krum successfully killed or forced the deposition of three Byzantine emperors. Nikephrous I was killed in battle. Staurakios was injured in that same battle and later died. Michael I was forced to abdicate and became a monk. Meanwhile, Krum died a natural death, passing the throne to his son, Omurtag.

The Empire under Krum of Bulgaria

The Baptism of St. Boris I of Bulgaria

The next three monarchs expanded the empire's borders and the laws of the land. Omurtag became famous for his persecution of the Christians, while Malamir and Presian I were ineffectual leaders who nonetheless furthered their ancestor's laws and expansions. It was Boris I, however, that ultimately became the most famous of the Bulgarian monarchs. Boris was ruler in a time of great conflict. East Francia, the Byzantine Empire and Serbia all pressed in, yet Boris succeeded in defeating them all. In 866, somewhat out of nowhere, Boris was baptized into the Orthodox church under the Christian name Michael. Soon after, the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, an autocephalous (autonomous) part of the Eastern Orthodox Church, was founded. In addition, Boris adopted the Cyrillic alphabet and Slavic language as official for Bulgaria. Boris abdicated in favor his son, Vladimir, but after a short pagan revival, Vladimir was deposed and replaced with another son, Simeon I. Boris I was later sainted by the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Bulgaria thrived under the reign of Simeon I the Great. He was proclaimed Tsar of Bulgaria and established the first Orthodox patriarchate outside of the antique Pentarchy. His son, Peter I, was likewise made tsar and even married the granddaughter of the Byzantine Emperor Romanos I. Despite military and political setbacks during his reign, he was highly revered and was sainted soon after his death. Boris II, his son, did not fare so well. Soon after his elevation, his lands were conquered by the Kievan Rus. He was coerced into fighting the Byzantines and lost badly. Southern Bulgaria was taken while pieces of the rest of the empire were parched between neighbors. The empire ultimately fell to the Byzantines in 971, though Boris tried desperately to reclaim it in 977, an attempt that ended his life. His brother, Roman, survived the affair and claimed the throne but was captured in 791 and died in prison. The Dulo Dynasty had finally met its end.

Cometopuli Dynasty (997 – 1018)
The tsardom passed to Samuil, a general under Roman who served as regent during the captivities of his predecessors. Samuil was successful in conquering back lands from Serbia, the Byzantine Empire, and Hungary – indeed he controlled the majority of the Balkan Peninsula north of Greece – but  he was unable to hold them.  He is widely considered the last monarch of the First Bulgarian Empire despite the fact that a son and nephew both ruled parts of the empire for another four years. Gavril and Ivan, though, were not able to hold back the Byzantine armies and the empire inevitably fell. Two members of the dynasty claimed the throne during the 167 years of Byzantine rule — Peter II and Peter III — but neither were able to retake the empire. The Bulgarians still remained an important part of the region, though, as three Byzantine emperors married Bulgarian princesses.

Asen Dynasty (1187 – 1396) & the Second Bulgarian Empire
After so many years as a tributary state of the Byzantine empire, the Second Bulgarian Empire rose from a revolt left by Theodore and Ivan Asen, two men from Moesia of probable Cumen origin who were otherwise unknown individuals. After three years of revolt, Emperor Issac II finally recognized the new Bulgarian entity in 1187. Peter IV was chosen as the new tsar, though he co-crowned his brother as Ivan I in 1189. Ivan was later murdered and his youngest brother was crowned as Ivan II in 1196.

The Empire under Ivan II of Bulgaria


Ivan II, better known as Kaloyan, was a successful general who expanded the Second Bulgarian Empire to its maximum limits. He successors continued maintaining the empire's size despite internal and neighborly intrigues. For the first time in Bulgarian history, the threat of Byzantium was minimized by the overthrow of the monarchy by the Latin Crusaders who created a new empire based in Constantinople. The Byzantine nobility fled and focused their efforts on retaking their capital rather than attacking the Bulgarians. Boril did little during his reign but his cousin, John II, brought the second empire to its height. John established an alliance with a Byzantine splinter-state, Epirus, but Epirus betrayed them and Bulgaria successfully defeated and annexed the small empire into its lands. The battle between the Latin Empire and the Empire of Nicaea, unfortunately, proved to be John's undoing. He could not choose a side so lingered in the south as the Mongol Horde invaded his northern lands. Though John died prior to the Mongol's ultimate victory, his son, Kaliman I, was forced into subservience to the Mongols under Batu Khan. Michael I was able to buy off the Mongols, but had an ineffectual reign. His nephew, Kaliman II, murdered Michael II and became tsar but died soon after through his own murder. Mitso, a kinsman of the family, tried to claim the throne, the nobles elected another man, Constantine, and Mitso fled to the Nicaean Empire.

The Asen dynasty had ended by this point, and Constantine was a scion of a Serbian family of Bulgarian nobles. He led the country poorly and saw it piecemeal away. By the time of his death, the empire had shrunk to half its size and the peasants were revolting. Ivan III, a son of Mitso, ruled for a very short time before fleeing to Constantinople with the royal treasury.

The Empire under George I of Bulgaria

Terter Dynasty (1280 – 1292, 1300 – 1322)
Ivaylo, the leader of the peasant revolt, took the empire over for a short while before being forced to flee to the Golden Horde of the Mongols in 1280. He was later murdered by his very protector, Nogai Khan. Mongol raids continued into Bulgaria during the reigns of the next four monarchs. George I, the first monarch of the Terter Dynasty, eventually had to flee, though he returned to Bulgaria more than a decade later durning the reign of his son. Smilets was ineffectual and ruled during the height of Mongol control over Bulgaria. Indeed, the next monarch was the son of Nogai Khan, Chaka, who was later deposed then strangled to death in 1300. With Chaka's death, the Terter Dynasty resumed under the leadership of Theodore, who was finally able to rest control of Bulgaria away from the Mongols as well as Thrace from the Byzantines. He later made peace with both neighbors and caused the Second Empire to enter a new age of expansion. His son, George II, took advantage of Byzantine intrigue to expand the empire further, but died before any significant gains coalesced.

The Empire under Theodore of Bulgaria

Shishman Dynasty (1323 – 1396)
When George II died, a descendant of the Asen Dynasty took control in the form of Michael III Shishman. Shishman is noted for many important "lasts" for the Bulgarian Empire. He was the last tsar to actively seek to rule the Balkan Peninsula. He was the last to attempt to seize Constantinople. And the dynasty was the last to rule the Second Empire. He died while fighting the increasingly dominant Serbs in 1330. His successor, Ivan Stefan, faced opposition on all sides and abdicated without ruling a year. Ivan Alexander, the next tsar, was nephew to Michael III Shishman and ruled the Second Empire into a second Golden Age. But the end of Bulgaria as an independent entity was already in sight. The Ottoman Empire was growing around the Byzantine Empire, hoping to entrap it, and the Bulgarian Empire was in the way. Elsewhere, to the north, the Magyar Hungarians were seeking new lands in Bulgarian Wallachia. And the Black Death was spreading its death across all of Europe. In an attempt to fight off this triple threat, Ivan Alexander divided his tsardom into two realms each ruled by a son. In the end, though, this only made its demise easier, separating resources and splitting armies. Ivan Shishman, Alexander's fourth son, held onto central Bulgaria until 1393 and remained alive for two years longer before falling under the Ottoman's axe. Alexander's third son, Sratsimir, lasted decided to ignore the pleas of his brother resulting that brother's fall. A year later, the Ottomans came for Sratsimir too, and the tsar was captured and strangled in 1396, thereby ending the Second Bulgarian Empire. Sratsimir's son, Constantine II, tried desperately to hold onto a few remaining lands of the Bulgarian Empire and was widely recognized as tsar, but failed to reclaim his heritage and died an exile at the Serbian court in 1422. The empire never revived and no independent state of Bulgaria re-emerged until 1878.

The Principality and Kingdom of Bulgaria (1878 – 1946)
Europe had greatly changed since Bulgaria fell so many centuries earlier. The German dynasties ruled most of Central and Eastern Europe and the Ottoman Empire was falling to pieces. When, in 1878, Bulgaria was allowed to become an autonomous monarchy within the Ottoman Empire, the Russian czar encouraged the Ottomans to choose his nephew as prince. And so, on 29 April 1879, Prince Alexander of the House of Battenberg assumed the long-vacant throne of the Bulgarian monarchy. Soon after his elevation and due to Russian intervention, Alexander rebelled and overthrew the new constitution to become an absolute ruler. While his coup was reversed two years later, Alexander lost the support of the Russians. War with Serbia lost Alexander any remaining support in Bulgaria and he was deposed in 1886.

His replacement was Ferdinand I of the Wettin sub-house of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha-Koháry. Prior to his election, the throne had been offered to princes from across Europe in an effort to avoid Russian control of the new principality. His election was unexpected but his reign was unusually successful. On 5 October 1908, he declared the independence of the Kingdom of Bulgaria from the Ottoman Empire and proclaimed himself king. He soon after joined the other Balkan states in destroying Ottoman control of the Balkans. With World War I starting in 1914, Bulgaria joined the Central Powers to gain lands from Serbia but lost the war. Alexander abdicated in favor of his son, Boris III, and went into exile where he died in 1948.

 
The Kingdom of Bulgaria after World War I and World War II

Boris III was a reluctant leader who saw the fortunes of Bulgaria turn from bad to worse. He allied with the Axis during World War II in order to take back Macedonia from Greece and Yugoslavia. Boris became a hero to many Jews by not extraditing his 50,000 strong Jewish population to Poland for processing, though he did condemn those Jews living in lands conquered by Bulgaria. Boris also refused to declare war on Russia due to the strong pro-Russian sentiment of many Bulgarians. This rift ended when Boris died a few months later in 1943 due to heart failure.

Prime Minister Simeon, formerly Simeon II of Bulgaria

His son, Simeon II, became the final Bulgarian monarch. He was six at the time and unable to rule, and thus his uncle, the prime minister, and the head of the military took over as a triumvirate regency. In 1944, Bulgaria was overrun by Soviet troops and the regency was ended. Two years later, a plebiscite ended the monarchy in favor of a Soviet/communist republic. Simeon II went into exile having never ruled under his own power. Though Simeon attempted many times to form a government-in-exile, no such entity came about. However, in a strange turn-of-fate, Simeon was issued a new Bulgarian passport in 1990 upon the fall of the communist government. Lands and property taken from the pretender four decades earlier were returned to him and his family. In 2001, he announced the creation of a new political party called the National Movement Simeon II (NMSII). The party won a majority of seats in Parliament and Simeon II became Prime Minister, becoming one of the only former monarchs in history to later become head-of-state of a democratic republic.


Thus ends the dynastic history of Bulgaria, and a long history it has indeed seen. For whatever reason, I still do not know why my co-worker believes Bulgaria has never had a monarch. Indeed, it is the only country I can think of that elected its former monarch as Prime Minister! In any case, Bulgaria remains a developing republic today, but its rich dynastic history remains a memory for most, though not all, of its people.

The Many Varied Dynasties of the First Two German Reichs (Germany)

There is a whole lot to cover today, so I am going to change my formatting around a little bit for this penultimate dynastology. Today I will be covering the various dynasties that ruled the Holy Roman Empire and German Empire from the rise of the Ottonians to the fall of the German Empire in 1918. I will not in any way be able to cover everything and in many places, I will be quickly summarizing. This is intentional. I want to cover the dynastic history mostly and am leaving much of the history out of this post. Hopefully it will be both enjoyable and enlightening. Now, on to the dynasties!

 _____________________________________________________________

The Holy Roman Empire at its Height, c. 970

The Ottonian Dynasty

Founder: Liudolf, Count of Saxony before 866 

Most Famous Monarch: Otto I the Great, Holy Roman Emperor 962 – 973 

Ruled: Saxony, Bavaria, the Holy Roman Empire 

Claim to Fame: The Ottonians restored the Roman Empire that Charlemagne had founded 150 years earlier. The Carolingian line had died out many years prior to the reign of Henry the Fowler, the first King of Germany of the Ottonian line. Otto the Great was instrumental in the unification of the Eastern Frankish states into a single entity, which became known soon after as the Holy Roman Empire.  

Last monarch: St. Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor, who died in 1024 (Henry II was also the only German Emperor to ever be canonized) 

What Happened? The dynasty simply died out because Henry II had taken a vow of chastity. The line passed to the Salian Dynasty, which were distant cousins of Henry II. 

 _____________________________________________________________

The Salian Dynasty

Henry IV, Holy Roman EmperorFounder: Conrad the Red, duke of Lorraine until 955

Most Famous Monarch: Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor 1084 – 1106

Ruled: Lorraine, Carinthia, Speyer, the Papacy, the Holy Roman Empire

Claim to Fame: The dynasty linked the Holy Roman Empire closely with the Catholic Church, which caused a lot of problems with the next dynasty. The Investiture Controversy  was a conflict between the Pope and Emperor over who had true control over appointing (investing) religious leaders in Imperial land. Oddly, the end result wasn't just the loss of control over much of Italy, but a loss of control over vassal states within the Empire itself.

Last monarch: Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor 1111 to 1125

What Happened? Henry V died in combat. He had no legitimate heirs so the line died out. His designated heir was Frederick II of Swabia, his nephew, and so the line passed to him.

_____________________________________________________________

 The House of Hohenstaufen

Frederick I Barbarossa, Holy Roman EmperorFounder: Frederick I, duke of Swabia until 1105

Most Famous Monarch: Frederick I Barbarossa ("the Red Beard"), Holy Roman Emperor 1155 – 1190

Ruled: Swabia, Sicily, the Holy Roman Empire

Claim to Fame: Barbarossa was known as a ruthless fighter who spent his entire life in war and accomplished virtually nothing for it. He invaded Italy with a huge army only to be slowly pushed back. His traditional allies in northern Italy worked against him and, despite being crowned emperor by the pope, he never managed to assert imperial authority over the Catholic Church or the Empire itself. Barbarossa ended up dying in the Holy Land while on crusade, leaving his family squabbling over its ruins.

Last monarch: Conradin, king of Sicily until 1268 and titular Holy Roman Emperor

What happened? Conradin was executed as a traitor after being excommunicated by the pope. The Kingdom of Sicily was divided between the Angevins and Aragonese, Swabia disintegrated and was incorporated into several neighboring states, and the Holy Roman Empire fell into nineteen years of civil war. The emperor never had absolute power again.

_____________________________________________________________

The House of Este-Welf, commonly known as Guelph

Founder: Welf I, duke of Bavaria until 1101

Most Famous Monarch: Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria until 1195

Ruled: Bavaria, Saxony, Brunswick, Great Britain, Ireland, the United Kingdom, Hanover

Lands of the Guelph dynasty, c. 1165

Claim to Fame: The Welf family has many claims to fame, but I will only discuss two. The first is that of Henry the Lion. Henry tried desperately to conquer and unify Saxony and Bavaria, two of his ancestral duchies. If completed, it would have made him the most powerful monarch in Germany. Henry failed, though, by alienating pretty much everyone else in Germany. When Frederick Barbarossa came around, Henry lost everything. He was exiled to Normandy as a landless royal in 1180 but returned three years later to secure some vestige of his short-lived empire. Henry was exiled again and only returned once Barbarossa was dead. He ravaged his former lands for a few years before contenting himself with the small duchy of Brunswick, which would remain the family's core unit until 1866.

Last Monarch: Ernst August III, duke of Brunswick until 1918

What happened? Power shifted from Hanover to the United Kingdom in the 18th and 19th centuries, leaving Hanover poor and neglected. When attention did return to the duchy, it was too late and the German Empire took it over. Wilhelm II granted Brunswick to one last Welf in 1913, but the empire fell soon after. The dynasty still continues, but no longer rules any country.

_____________________________________________________________

The House of Luxembourg

The Seven Imperial Electors voting for Henry VII of LuxembourgFounder: Waleran I, count of Limburg from 1065 – 1082

Most Famous Monarch: Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor 1355 – 1378

Ruled: Limburg, Lorraine, Bohemia, the Holy Roman Empire

Claim to Fame: It was Charles IV who promulgated the Golden Bull of 1356, setting in place the rules of the election of future emperors. He also was one of the most well-recognized emperors in Imperial history. He was elected King of the Romans twice: the first time was as an anti-emperor against Louis IV; the second was to confirm the earlier election after Louis died. He was crowned King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor. He also was crowned King of Burgundy, something that was rarely done by the 14th century.

Last Monarch: Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor 1433 – 1437

What happened? Sigismund didn't produce any sons and so all his territories passed to his daughter, Elisabeth, who married Albert von Habsburg and helped empower the Habsburgs to take control of the empire a few decades later.

_____________________________________________________________

The House of Vaudemont, commonly divided as Habsburg-Lorraine and Hesse

Charles, Emperor of Austria and King of HungaryFounder: Adalbert, duke of Upper Lorraine from 1047 – 1048

Most Famous Monarch: Francis Ferdinand, Archduke and Heir of Austria 1889 – 1914

Ruled: Metz, Lorraine, Bar, Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, Hesse

Claim to Fame: The fame of the House of Vaudemont is that people who DIDN'T rule are more famous than those who did. Like Marie Antoinette, the queen of Louis XVI of France who probably did not say "Let them eat cake!" when French protesters were laying siege to Versailles and who lost her head a few years later. Yeah, she's not exactly the most important historical figure but I can guarantee you most people know her more than the name of her father, Francis I of Austria. Another famous Vaudemont was Franz Ferdinand, the most common answer to "Whose assassination caused World War I?" Franz wasn't even close to being Austrian emperor yet and no one knows the name of royal heirs in history. He is only important because his death led to a massive world war. I'd like to know more about the Hessians...and not just their participation as mercenaries in the American Revolutionary War...

Last Monarch: Charles, Emperor of Austria 1916 – 1918; Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse(-Darmstadt) 1892 – 1918

What happened? The same fate that befell the German Empire befell the two distant branches of the House of Vaudemont. Ernest Louis was forced to abdicate after serving for four years in the German military. The Hesse grand duchy quickly joined the Weimar Republic. Charles likewise didn't abdicate, but he did step down from being the head of state of both Austria and Hungary, leaving the decision of his abdication to the people. After Austria & Hungary declared themselves republics two months later, Charles and his family left. Both the Hessian and Habsburg-Lorraine lines continue to provide pretenders to the thrones, the current pretender to Austria being the now-ancient Dr. Otto von Habsburg, who just turned 98 years old.

____________________________________________________________

The House of Wettin

Leopold I, King of the BelgiansFounder: Dietrich I, count in Liesgau until c. 982 

Most Famous Monarch: Elizabeth II, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain & Northern Ireland since 1952 

Ruled: Thuringia, Saxony, Poland, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Bulgaria, Belgium 

Claim to Fame: Perhaps the most interesting thing about the House of Wettin is that it never became an imperial dynasty. Indeed, it was one of the most powerful and influential families in Germany for many centuries, yet never succeeded in obtaining the imperial throne. The family's two branches both led interesting lives—one as imperial electors right up to the end in 1806 when they declared Saxony a kingdom, and one that continued to subdivide until magically the family began ruling the United Kingdom, Portugal, Bulgaria, and Belgium...in addition to all the small territories in Germany.

Last Monarch: There isn't one! Elizabeth II still rules in the United Kingdom and Albert II still rules in Belgium. Pretenders from Saxony and Bulgaria still exist from the Wettin line as well, although the Portuguese Wettins died out not long after the last monarch was deposed.

What happened? All Wettin holdings in Germany were ended in 1918 and integrated into the Weimar Republic. Many lines survive to this day outside of Germany.

_____________________________________________________________

The House of Hohenzollern

Founder: Burkhard I, count of Zollern until 1061 

Most Famous Monarch: Frederick II the Great, King in Prussia & Elector of Brandenburg 1740 – 1786

Ruled: Nuremberg, Ansbach, Brandenburg, Prussia, Hohenzollern, Germany, Romania

The German Empire, 1871 to 1918

Claim to Fame: Like the Wettins, the Hohenzollerns never made it to the imperial throne, though they were electors from the start. But they did get quite bold. After ending the line of Grand Masters of the Teutonic Knights in Prussia, the Hohenzollerns incorporated the lands into their sprawling domain. The problem was Poland was right in the way between Brandenburg (in Germany) and Prussia (in northern Poland-Lithuania). So the Hohenzollerns spent the majority of their career trying to take those lands from Poland, all the while picking up pieces of everyone else's land. By the late 19th century, they just decided to take it all and declared the German Empire (Second Reich). It was short-lived but the unity stuck.

Last Monarch: Michael I, king of the Romanians 1927 – 1930, 1940 – 1947

What happened? After Germany's defeat in World War I, Germany declared the Weimar Republic and the Hohenzollerns (and all the other vassal monarchs) got the boot. The dynasty continued in Romania until 1947 when the communists overthrew the king and declared the People's Republic of Romania. Both Germany and Romania still have pretenders to the throne from the Hohenzollern line.

_____________________________________________________________

The House of Württemberg

William II, King of WürttembergFounder: Conrad I, count of Württemberg

Most Famous Monarch: Ulrich, duke of Württemberg 1498 – 1550

Ruled: Württemberg

Claim to Fame: Württemberg really has no claim to fame. It remained one of the largest of the small states in Germany and it was lucky in that it rarely divided itself, thereby avoiding spreading its resources thin. Ulrich led the march to convert the state to Protestantism after Martin Luther posted his theses in Saxony. The conversion stuck and Württemberg became the second state in Germany to become Protestant. When his line died out in the 18th century, a rival Catholic line took control, but they converted to Protestantism a few generations later. Napoleon upgraded the duchy to a kingdom in 1806 and no one told them otherwise after Napoleon fell. It became the smallest of the German kingdoms when the Hohenzollerns created the German Empire in 1871.

Last Monarch: William II, king of Württemberg 1891 – 1918

What happened? Actually, bad luck happened. Unlike William II in Germany and many of the other German monarchs, William II of Württemberg was pretty popular. The only explanation for his downfall is that the people of Württemberg were caught up in the moment with the rest of Germany and simply deposed him. He was the last of his line, but another cadet branch of the family still survives as pretenders to the Württemberg throne.

_____________________________________________________________

There are many other dynasties in German history but there is no way I can go through them all. Above are the most important; those dynasties that contributed the most to German history. Other dynasties of note are the House of Mecklenburg, the House of Zahringen, the House of Supplinburg, the House of Lippe, the House of Schwarzburg and the House of Waldeck. They all contributed to the history of Germany. Also, you cannot forget the dynasties I have already covered in great detail: Habsburg, Oldenburg, Wittelsbach, and more. They, too, are important. Each helped for the modern German state and regional identities, and each still remains suitable candidates for royal marriages. Indeed, we may well see some of these families on thrones again one day...assuming they aren't already on a throne...