[October 29] Gustaf V, king of Sweden

Parents: Oscar II, king of Sweden, and Sofia of Nassau
Born: 16 June 1858
House: Bernadotte
Spouse(s): Victoria, daughter of Frederick I, grand duke of Baden, and Louise of Prussia
Predecessor: Oscar II

Reign: 1907 – 1950
Brief: Acting as king of Sweden through two world wars was a tough job for Gustav V. Born to a dynasty that had just become a constitutional monarchy prior to his ascension, Gustav was somewhat disappointed by his limited powers and used whatever he could to wield control over Sweden. In 1911, a liberal government was elected but Gustav meddled and the entirety of the government resigned in 1914, allowing Gustav to install a new government of his own. This government served against the wishes of Parliament throughout World War I, during which time Gustav V served as commander of the armed forces. In 1914, the king also met with the kings of Norway and Denmark to negotiate a triple alliance that denied participation in the war and emphasized Scandinavian unity. In 1917, a new liberal government was installed and Gustav reluctantly reclused himself from further governance. In the build-up to World War II, Gustav appeared to many as a Nazi sympathizer. During the war, he congratulated Hitler on attacking Russia even while suggesting that the Jews be treated more leniently. In 1941, Sweden was forced to allow German troops through Swedish territory to avoid war, a move that marred Gustav's legacy thereafter. Gustav did not appear publicly much after the war and died of complications related to the flu in 1950 at the age of 92.

Date of Death: 29 October 1950
Successor: Gustav VI Adolf

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Boleslaw III, duke of Poland (1138)
• Conradin, duke of Swabia (1268)
• Frederick I, margrave of Baden (1268)
• Stephen II, king of Serbia (1321)
• Mohammadu Maccido, sultan of Sokoto (2006)

[September 15] Gustaf VI Adolf, king of Sweden

Full Name: Oscar Fredrik Wilhelm Olaf Gustaf Adolf
Parents: Gustaf V, king of Sweden, and Victoria of Baden
House: Bernadotte
Born: 11 November 1882
Spouse(s): (1) Margaret, daughter of Arthur, duke of Connaught, and Louise Margaret of Prussia, then (2) Louise, daughter of Louis, prince of Battenberg, and Victoria of Hesse-and-by-Rhine
Predecessor: Gustaf V

Reign: 1950 – 1973
Brief: The immense popularity of Gustaf VI saved him from a short reign. The government of Sweden was working to implement a new constitution and considering dropping the monarchy altogether, but Gustaf convinced them to retain it and the new constitution wasn't promulgated until after his death in 1975. As a monarch, he ruled with decreasing powers of state, and all remaining powers were removed in 1975. Gustaf VI died of pneumonia in 1973 at the age of 91.

Date of Death: 15 September 1973

Successor: Carl XVI Gustaf

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Constans II, emperor of Constantinople (668)
• Robert IV, margrave of Neustria (866)
• Louis I, duke of Bavaria (1231)
• Dmitry, grand prince of Vladimir (1326)

[August 23] Olav II, king of Denmark

Parents: Håkon VI, king of Norway, and Margaret I, queen of Denmark
Date of Birth: 1370
House: Bjelbo
Predecessor: Vlademar IV (in Denmark) and Håkon VI (in Norway)
Reign: 1376 – 1387
Summary: The fortunes of three different kingdoms consolidated themselves in the guise of one man: the young prince Olav. Son of the king of Norway, his grandfather was the king of Sweden while his mother was the queen of Denmark. In 1376, King Valdemar IV of Denmark died, leaving the entire state to his grandson through his daughter to Olav II. Margaret, his mother, was to rule as his regent since he was only five-years-old at the time. At the time of his inheritance, his mother forced the Danehof to add the epitaph "true heir of Sweden" to his titles since Sweden was currently being ruled by a parliamentary-elected king, Albrect of Mecklenburg. The Swedish towns of Scania and smaller villages controlled by the Hanseatic League supported his claim and proclaimed him king. When King Håkon VI of Norway, his father, died in 1380, Olav became the undisputed ruler of Denmark and Norway. He was ten-years-old at the time.

Margaret would not let Olav rule even after he turned fifteen—the legal age to rule—in 1385. The union of Denmark and Norway under Olav continued until 1814 with only brief interruptions. But Olav would not be the one to realize the opportunities presented by such a union. The young king died only two years later, in 1387, possibly due to poisoning. He had no wife or children. His mother proclaimed herself regent and became queen in Norway the next year. When King Albert in Sweden was defeated in 1389, she claimed the Swedish throne and united Scandinavia into the Kalmar Union, which was continued for centuries. For Olav, his death ended the Norwegian Bjelbo dynasty and brought an end to Norwegian sovereignty for centuries to come.
Date of Death: 23 August 1387
Successor: Margaret I

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Radagaisus, king of the Goths (406)
• Abu Bakr, caliph of Sunni Islam (634)
• Ali al-Rida, imam of Shi'a Islam (818)
• Magnus, duke of Sxony (1106)
• Rokujo, emperor of Japan (1176)

[May 14] Charles VIII, king of Sweden and Norway

True Name: Karl Knutsson Bonde
Parents: Knut Tordsson Bonde and Margareta Karlsdotter

Date of Birth: 5 October 1409

House: Bonde
Spouse: (1) Birgitta Turesdotter Bielke, then (2) Katarina, daughter of Karl Ormsson, then (3) Kristina, daughter of Abraham Pedersson

Predecessor: Christopher, Christian I

Reign: 1449 – 1457, 1464 – 1465, 1467 – 1470

Summary: The fate of Charles was not to be a king. He was born to a noble family that sat on the privy council of Sweden that was ruled by a Denmark-installed regent. His ancestry was royal on both sides by tradition, but little evidence supports this theory. Instead, he was a simple man who rose to prominence through luck and smarts. He became a member of the Swedish privy council in 1434 and later that year became the Lord High Constable. He became the Danish regent for Sweden within the Kalmar Union in 1438. He stepped down from his post when Christopher of Bavaria was elected king, and Charles became the Lord High Justiciar while resuming his duty as constable as well. His power gave him land and prominence within Sweden. In his positions, he began to hold his own court separate from Christopher's in Copenhagen, and he also began to negotiate separate treaties for Sweden. When Christopher died in 1448, Charles was elected his successor in Sweden, temporarily breaking the power of Denmark over Sweden. Later that year, the Danish elected Christian I as their king, and war followed soon after.


Norway was the battleground, as both monarchs claimed sovereignty over it. In 1449, half of the Norwegian council elected Charles their king, but Christian did not give up. Sweden's council held back from open war, fearing defeat, and in 1450, Charles was forced to cede Norway to Denmark. From 1451 onwards, Sweden and Denmark were at war. The devastation on Sweden caused the peasants to revolt. When the church joined in the revolt, Charles was doomed. Charles was deposed in 1457, but was able to regain his throne from Christian I in 1464 only to lose it the next year. He once again regained the throne in 1467. His last three years in office were in a sort of constitutional monarchical state with the Swedish Riksråd (Parliament). Charles died in office in 1470 and John II of Denmark was soon after elected king. Charles VIII was the first monarch of a growing movement against the Kalmar Union that united Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. It took almost another hundred years before the Vasas finally took power, but when they did, Sweden revered Charles as their movement's earliest leader. Today, descendants of Charles rule in Norway, the United Kingdom, and, most recently, Sweden.

Date of Death: 14 May 1470

Successor: Christian I, John II

Other Monarch Deaths:

John XII, pope of Rome (964)

Charles III, duke of Lorraine (1608)

Henry IV, king of France (1610)

Louis XIII, king of France (1643)

Frederick VIII, king of Denmark (1912)

[April 19] Christina, queen of Sweden

True Name: Kristina Augusta
Parents: Gustav II Adolf, king of Sweden, and Maria Eleanora of Brandenburg

Date of Birth: 19 December 1626

House: Vasa

Predecessor: Gustav II Adolf

Reign: 1632 – 1654

Summary: Christina was the only surviving child of King Gustav II Adolf of Sweden. Strange astrological predictions brought hope that Christina would be the long-awaited son of the king, and indeed Christina was born hairy with a horse voice. When it was discovered that it was a girl, most of those present feared the wrath of Gustav, but the king laughed predicting "She'll be clever; she has made folds of us all!" Early in her development, Christina was dropped and throughout her life she had one shoulder higher than the other. Gustav fought hard to establish Christina as his heir when he left to fight the Catholics in the Thirty Years' War. Christina was to be raised as a prince and a boy, despite her sexual orientation. And when Gustav died in 1632, Christina became de jure queen of Sweden. Gustav had arranged for his half-sister, Catherine, to care for Christina but his wife, Maria Eleanora, dismissed the sister. Eventually, Chancellor of State Axel Oxenstierna, the regent, was forced to exile the queen mother in 1636 and recalled Catherine to act as regent.

As a child queen, Christina was taught religion, philosophy, Greek, and Latin. Oxenstierna taught her politics and discussed Tacitus. Christina eventually became fluent in Swedish, German, Danish, Dutch, French, Italian, Latin, and Greek. From 1638 onwards, Christina was taught elegance and grace in addition to her traditional education. In 1644, Christina formally became the leader of Sweden. She immediately sought a peace treaty with Denmark, which profited Sweden with territories from Denmark and Norway. Christina began butting heads with Oxenstierna during the Peace Congress in Osnabrück and Münster, with both politicians sending their own diplomats. She succeeded in her mission by winning a seat for Sweden in the Holy Roman Empire's Reichstag (Parliament). In 1649, René Descartes came to Sweden and he died there a few months later. Christina was distraught over the death and embraced skepticism, abandoning any strict adherence to Protestantism. With no desire to marry and no legitimate Vasa's remaining to inherit the throne, Christina set her sights on Charles Gustav, son of John Casimir, count palatine of Zweibrücken-Kleeburg. He was descended from the Swedish monarchy through his mother, Catherine, Christina's former regent. By 1651, Christina sought to abdicate her throne to Charles Gustav. Her advisors repeatedly talked her out of it. Then, in 1652, Christina privately converted to Catholicism. In addition, Christina was becoming unpopular due to changes in temperament and her desire to promote all of those who showed her loyalty with lands and titles.  She made brought Sweden to the brink of bankruptcy. The government finally relented and Christina abdicated on 5 June 1654. Soon after, she went to Denmark disguised as "Count Donha". She settled for a time in Antwerp in the Spanish Netherlands. She then travelled throughout Italy until settling in Rome. She returned to Sweden once between 1660 and 1662 but returned to Rome where died in 1689.

Date of Death: 19 April 1689

Successor: Charles X Gustav

Other Monarch Deaths:

Leo IX, pope of Rome (1054)

Gerasimus I, patriarch of Constantinople (1321)

Robert II, king of Scots (1390)

[February 12] Adolf Frederick, king of Sweden

Parents: Christian August, prince of Eutin, and Albertina Frederica of Baden-Durlach

Date of Birth: 12 February 1710

Royal House: Oldenburg-Holstein-Gottorp

Spouse: Louisa Ulrika, daughter of Frederick William I, king in Prussia, and Sophia Dorothea of Hanover

Reign: 1751 – 1771

Predecessor: Frederick I

Summary: Adolf Frederick came to the throne in a time when the Swedish parliament, the Riksdag, controlled the government. His father was the prince-bishop of Lubeck and ruled the Holstein-Gottorp during the Great Northern War. Despite a fair descent from many German families as well as the British royal house, Adolf Frederick was not meant to rule. He was elected heir to the throne by a faction of the Riksdag so that negotiations with Russia would go smoother. Elizabeth of Russia accepted his nephew as her heir in return and the two countries made peace in the Treaty of Turku.

As king, Adolf Frederick served as the figurehead of a parliamentary government. He was not content to stay a passive entity in his own kingdom, but he had little power or ability to break out of his shell. Twice he attempted to leave his estates in order to arrange a coup d'etat, and both times he failed. His wife, Louisa Ulrika, was the fiery daughter of the Prussian king and encouraged him in his efforts to assert himself. He almost lost the throne during his first attempt. His son, Gustav, supported his second coup attempt and succeeded in overthrowing the senate, but could not rally enough support to reinstate absolute rule. The king was a portly and unhealthy man and his death was famous for its extravagance. His final meal consisted of lobster, caviar, sauerkraut, kippers, champaign and fourteen servings of his favorite dessert, semla, served in a bowl of hot milk. Today he is remembered by Swedish schoolchildren as "the king who ate himself to death." 

Date of Death: 12 February 1771

Successor: Gustav III

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Jane Grey, queen of England & Ireland (1554)

[February 5] Sten Sture, regent of Sweden

The death of Sten Sture on the ice of Lake Mälaren, 1880.

Surnamed: The Younger (den yngre)

Parents: Svante Nilsson, regent of Sweden and Iliana Gisladotter Gädda

Date of Birth: 1493

Royal House: Sture

Spouse: Christina Gyllenstierna

Reign: 1512 – 1520

Predecessor: Erik Trolle

Summary: Sten came from a prominent Swedish family, the Stures of Ekesiö. Sten's father died when Sten was only 18 years old. Being considered too young to become the next regent, Eric Trolle, a Danish sympathizer, was chosen. This was a harsh time for Sweden. The country was controlled by Denmark via the Kalmar Union, yet the people of Sweden sought independence. Sten was fiefed a large army and a number of castles by his father, and thus attempted a coup. He promised that he would resume negotiations with Denmark and the Swedish High Council deposed Trolle.

Sten did not want to negotiate with Denmark. He made a treaty with Russia to end their war and set his sights solely on removing Denmark from Sweden. Internal problems, such as a feud between the church and Sten, were quickly resolved. Meanwhile, Christian II of Denmark invaded. Sten led a valiant resistance but was mortally wounded at the Battle of Bogesund in January of 1520. He died two weeks later on his return to Stockholm. Christian II took the Swedish throne from the regency government and executed the malefactors in what became known as the Stockholm Bloodbath. Sten's body was piled on the corpses with the rest, was burnt at the stake as a heretic to Denmark.

Date of Death: 5 February 1520

Successor: Christian II, king of Denmark

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Jaber II Al-Sabah, emir of Kuwait (1917)

Two States, One King (Divided Rule)

Two years ago last December, I completed my master's dissertation on the topic of dynastic unions. Specifically, I focused on the dynastic union of England and the United Provinces of the Netherlands under King William III and the union of Great Britain (later the United Kingdom) and the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg (later Kingdom of Hanover) under Kings George I-IV and William IV. It was a daunting task with a strong emphasis on ruling two states at the same time. Yet these individuals were only the last British monarchs in a long series of rulers to preside over multiple states simultaneously. Indeed, for a while it was vogue for monarchs to try and collect states, as it were, in order to expand their empire. Some they would fold into their own "mother" state while others would remain under outside control.


England's Bouts of Duality
Let's start this little survey with a look at what Britain has controlled off-and-on throughout its existence. I've already mentioned two so let's chalk them up:

William III, King of England
& Stadtholder of the Netherlands

• The Kingdoms of England, Scotland & Ireland, et al. with The United Provinces of the Netherlands (1689 – 1702)
• Ruler: King William III who was also Stadtholder of the Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders & Overijssel (most of the Netherlands)
• The Dutch Estates General ruled the Netherlands in his stead
• The English Privy Council ruled Britain in his stead
• How'd it start: William III conquered England (sort of) and deposed his father-in-law, thereby taking the crown. He was already stadtholder at the time.
• Fate: Died leaving England in the hands of his sister-in-law Anne and Netherlands in the hands of nobody in particular

• The Kingdom of Great Britain & Ireland, et al. with The Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Electorate of Brunswick (1714 – 1803, 1813 – 1832)
• Rulers: Kings George I, George II, George III, George IV, and William IV who were also hereditary rulers of the region immediately around Hanover in Germany
• The English Privy Council, the Queen, and/or the Prince of Wales ruled Britain in their stead
• The Hanoverian Regency and/or the Prince of Wales ruled Hanover in their stead
• Communication was via a special agency unaffiliated with the British government
• How'd it start: To avoid another Catholic monarch, the British monarchy went to their 52nd choice in the line of succession: an elderly granddaughter of James I. She died and her German son inherited Britain.
• The Kingdom of Great Britain & Ireland became the United Kingdom in 1801
• The Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg became the Kingdom of Hanover in 1814
• Fate: Separate succession laws left Britain in the hands of Queen Victoria and Hanover in the hands of King Ernest Augustus



Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg. Note: Bremen, Verden, Osnabrück, and
Lauenburg were also all dynastic unions. Brunswick -Wolfenbüttel was
a separate possession of a younger branch of the House of Este-Welf.

These are rather late additions, so let's step back into time and see what other dynastic unions existed. Two have already been implied though not mentioned:

• The Kingdom of England with The Kingdom of Ireland (1542 – 1651, 1659 – 1801)
• Rulers: All English monarchs from Henry VIII onwards until 1801
• The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland ruled in their stead
• How'd it start: The Kingdom of Ireland replaced the semi-sovereign and often autonomous Lordship of Ireland which was also presided over by the Lord Lieutenant. Ireland had been partially conquered by Normans in the 12th century and Henry VIII finished the job...mostly.
• Fate: Ireland had little independence in the union and Great Britain and Ireland finally formed a constitutional union in 1801

The Royal Standard of the United Kingdom
(Note: First and Fourth quarters represent England, the
second represents Scotland, and the third Ireland.)

• The Kingdoms of England & Ireland with The Kingdom of Scotland (1603 – 1651, 1660 – 1707)
• Rulers: All English monarchs from James I onwards until 1707
• The Scottish Parliament and Privy Council ruled in their stead
• How'd it start: Elizabeth I died leaving three possible heirs: the most senior—the Scottish king—or one of two squabbling heiresses who broke the queen's rules. She went with the Scotsman.
• Fate: Scotland attempted to end the union but failed and were forced to enter into a constitutional union in 1707

There are dozens of other unions England had with other states throughout its medieval history. Most of these territories were in France. While England very briefly claimed true control over the French throne in the 15th century, I will gloss over that to focus on two other historically more important territories that England once controlled:

Map of France in 1154. Normandy is the pink bit in
the north. Aquitaine is the large peach part in the
middle and south. Note: Brittany (orange on left)
and Anjou (center red) were also dynastic unions.

• The Kingdom of England with The Duchy of Normandy (1066 – 1087, 1106 – 1144, 1150 – 1204 [– Present])
• Rulers: William I, Henry I, Stephen, Henry II, Richard I and John
• A regent and/or Lord Lieutenant ruled Normandy in their stead
• How'd it start: William I of Normandy invaded England and killed his predecessor, Harold II, and deposed the upstart, Edgar II.
• Fate: Conflict with France over sovereignty in Normandy resulted in the French confiscation of Normandy in 1204.
• Today: The Channel Islands, primarily Guernsey and Jersey, remain Crown Dependencies under the name "Duchy of Normandy" and are the last remnant of the once-great duchy. These islands are not a part of the United Kingdom though are administered by it. The Lieutenant Governor of each set of islands rules in the monarch's stead.

• The Kingdom of England with The Duchy of Aquitaine ([1152] 1204 – 1362)
• Rulers: Technically, Eleanor of Aquitaine ruled until 1204, but her husband, Henry II, and sons, Richard I and John, both ruled in her stead many times. Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, and Edward III also ruled.
• A Regent ruled in their stead.
• How'd it start: Henry II married the Aquaitaine duchess, Eleanor, and took her lands for his own.
• Fate: The French got fed up with England not respecting them, so reclaimed their fief. England countered by claiming the French crown. So began the Hundred Years' War. Neither side really could claim the title after that.

Finally, just as a fun aside, the British monarch is still technically in one last dynastic union (not counting the Commonwealth countries) with a tiny little island sitting in the Irish Sea:

The Kingdom of Mann was
once much larger and included
the Western Isles of Scotland

• The Kingdom of England with The Lordship of Mann (1765 – Present)
• Rulers: Every British monarch since George III
• A Lieutenant Governor rules in their stead
• How'd it start: In 1399, Henry IV conquered the Kingdom of Mann from its hereditary ruler. It had previously alternated between Norwegian, Scottish, and English control for centuries. It fell into the Stanley family and, in 1504, they renounced the title "King" in favor of "Lord". In 1765, the Baroness Strange sold the title back to the English crown.
• Fate: Today, the monarch of the United Kingdom is also, separately, the Lord of Mann. It is administered separately as with the Channel Islands (see Duchy of Normandy).

More Problems than an Oversized Chin

The Habsburgs of Austria had their own divided monarchy that, at times, remained divided for long periods of time, but every once in a while, they would recombined to become truly behemoth political entities that would span the breath of Europe. Three long-term unions and one amazingly brief union created a Habsburg empire that still boggles modern minds.

• The Archduchy of Austria with The Kingdoms of Bohemia & Hungary (1438 – 1918)
• Rulers: Various Habsburg monarchs until 1918
• The Habsburg monarchs ruled Bohemia through various means, but rarely directly
• How'd it start: Albert married the daughter of the previous king of both Bohemia and Hungary. He was crowned king of Hungary in 1438 and Bohemia six months later, but never ruled in the latter. The Habsburgs did not firmly establish themselves in either until 1526.
• Fate: Hungary remained a part of Austria-Hungary until 1918 and the monarchy was officially ended on 1921. Bohemia was incorporated into the Austrian Empire in 1806 and became crown land in 1867. It later became half of Czechoslovakia after World War I.

Map of the Ethnic Composition of Austria-Hungary in 1910. Note: Only Austria, Hungary and Bohemia were legal
dynastic unions. Bosnia, Croatia, Dalmatia, Transylvania, Galicia, and Moravia were all artificial monarchies.

Map of the Iberian Peninsula, 1570. Note: Galicia (top left),
Aragon (top right), and Cordoba (bottom center) were all
in dynastic unions with Castile (Spain) during this period.

• The Kingdom of Spain with The Kingdom of Portugal (1560 – 1640)
• Rulers: Philip II of Spain, Philip III and Philip IV
• A Viceroy of Portugal ruled in their stead
• How'd it start: The last obvious heir to the Portuguese throne died leaving it vacant with the Spanish monarch, Philip II, in a prime dynastic, political, and military position to claim it.
• Fate: Fed up with Spanish domination of politics and an obvious loss of their overseas empire, Portuguese revolutionaries deposed Philip IV and installed a native king.

A Map of the Burgundian Inheritance. The lands
dynastically unified to Spain in the Low Countries
were vast and spanned seven modern countries.

• The Kingdom of Spain with The Duchy of Burgundy (1516 – 1555)
• Ruler: Charles I of Spain, also known as Holy Roman Emperor Charles V
• Many different methods were used to rule his empire
• How'd it start: First off, this dynastic union appears very mediocre for all the hype, so let's explain. The Kingdom of Spain at this time did not just include what we think of today as Spain. It also included all of Italy south of Rome and Sicily. He inherited all of this from his mom, though technically she was still alive until 1555. Next, Burgundy refers to a large area that today includes Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg and parts of Germany and France. It was on par in side to Portugal but with much more valuable land. He inherited this lot from his dad, Philip the Handsome, in 1506. In addition, Charles was also an Archduke of Austria, was elected Holy Roman Emperor (which technically means he was King of Italy and Germany), and he also ruled over all the new Spanish possessions overseas. So in literal size, his empire was quite large for a European monarch.
• Fate: Inevitably, he tired of ruling such a large empire. He actually abdicated two years before his death. Spain, Italy, and Burgundy he left to his son, Philip II. The Holy Roman Empire he left to his brother, Ferdinand I.

Danes Among Us

Denmark has led a long history of dual monarchy. Stationed on the small peninsula that divides the North Sea from the Baltic Sea, it is in prime position to claim both the fjords of Norway and Sweden and the flats of Germany. And claim them it did, though not without significant resistance. Two long dynastic unions proved that a small country could still play it large.

• The Kingdom of Denmark with The Kingdoms of Sweden & Norway (1397 – 1523)
• Rulers: Margaret, Erik, Christopher III, Christian I, John and Christian II
• Sweden and Norway maintained regencies in their stead (and sometimes against them)
• How'd it start: Queen Margaret I of Denmark married King Haakon VI of Norway and their son, Olaf III, became king of both in 1380. In 1389, Margaret united Sweden to Denmark and in 1396, Erik of Pomerania was elected the first king of all three realms. The union was formalized the next year via the Treaty of Kalmar.
• Fate: Almost immediately, the Swedes came into conflict with the Danes over Danish wars in northern Germany. Sweden elected an anti-king, Charles VIII, who was deposed and restored numerous times. Eventually Sweden would elect Gustav Vasa as king and secede from the union permanently, only to become involved in their own German wars.

The Kalmar Union. Note: Lower Finland was a dependency of Sweden while
Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, the Shetland Islands, and the Orkneys
were dependencies of Norway. Schleswig-Holstein in Germany was in a
dynastic union with Denmark throughout this time.

• The Kingdom of Denmark with The Kingdom of Norway (1536 – 1816)
• Rulers: All kings of Denmark until 1816
• Norway maintained a regency in their stead
• How'd it start: With the fall of the Kalmar Union (see above), Denmark retained Norway, though not without a fight. Denmark's dynastic claim over Norway was stronger, and Norway was unable to resist Danish domination to the same degree as Sweden.
• Fate: Norway was traded to Sweden following the Napoleonic Wars and, after a brief war between Norway and Sweden, the two countries entered into their own dynastic union that lasted until 1905, when Norway finally became an sovereign kingdom once more.

Poling your Weight Around

Poland, too, was the senior partner in a long dynastic union. While Poland jumped in and out of other unions throughout its history, it's union with one partner withstood the test of time.

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, 1618. The sheer size of this dynastic
union is unbelievable. Livonia (gray), Courland (greenish), and Prussia (peach)
were vassal states of Poland-Lithuania but not in dynastic union with it.

• The Kingdom of Poland with The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1382 – 1795)
• Rulers: All kings of Poland until the dissolution of the monarchy in 1795
• It is unknown how these monarchs ruled both realms
• How'd it start: Grand Duke Ladislas II of Lithuania married "King" Hedwig of Poland. When she died, Ladislas became ruler of both. 
• Fate: Sigismund II constitutionally unified the two lands in 1572, though both retained autonomy. The monarchy became elective after that date, though it stayed in the Vasa family of Sweden for many generations. The entire monarchy fell apart in the French Revolutionary Wars and its fractions were given to Russia, Prussia and Austria.

Conclusion

Almost every monarchic state in Europe at one time or another controlled another state. France was often the largest player, but its attachments were almost always geographically close to France and also geographically smaller. Spain ruled vast lands around the Mediterranean for many years, including much of southern Italy. Sweden and Denmark both had their hands on significant lands in Northern Germany for awhile. In the end, most dynastic unions have to come to an end. The junior partner either joins the senior partner in a constitutional union or the two separate permanently. Today, quasi-states such as Mann and the Channel Islands are exceptions rather than the rule.

Attempts to force dynastic unions, such as that of the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) and United Provinces (Netherlands) after the Napoleonic Wars, generally fail. The Prussian and Sardinian technique of blatant conquest and monarchic overthrow, such as in the unifications of Germany and Italy, seem to work better. The other technique, largely used by France and Spain, of slowly marrying into title-holding families and inheriting the titles also works better.

Nonetheless, throughout history most monarchies have experienced periods of dynastic union and it is an interesting, albeit often overlooked, aspect of nation-building that I find absolutely riveting.

From Oldenburg with Love (Oldenburgs, Part 3)

The House of Oldenburg has mostly certainly proved to be a grand and expansive house, ruling Denmark and Norway even today, and Russia in not yet a century ago. But Oldenburg was a very wide house, as demonstrated in my dynastic tree below (see notes below). In a relatively short time—700 years or so—it went from ruling a small county in northern Germany to the largest single country ever created. Yet in that time, the House of Oldenburg also managed to pick up some smaller entities, that are no less important.

The House of Oldenburg Dynasty Tree

Perhaps the most important and oft-overlooked of the Oldenburg possessions is the County of Oldenburg itself. The county was created in 1180 and eventually became a duchy and then grand duchy. At first they were a vassal state of the Duchy of Saxony, the largest German power in the area. However, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa dismembered the duchy and Oldenburg branched off on its own. A second portion of the county, Delmenhorst, was generally held by a member of a cadet branch, although it often found its way back to the main line. Oldenburg finally fell under the control of a cadet line when Christian I became king of Denmark in 1440. With titles in Norway, Sweden and Schleswig-Holstein following soon after, Christian simply didn't have time for the relatively simple Oldenburg. Over the years, Oldenburg chipped away at portions of Frisia and other neighbors, enlarging its territory bit by bit. During the disastrous Thirty Years War, Oldenburg was one of the lucky few states to remain neutral, and thereby not desolated, in the war.

The Grand Duchy of Oldenburg

In 1776, the county broke off on its own, completely removing itself from Danish politics. It was elevated to a duchy the next year and gained a number of nearby lands through the mediation of the French. The country was soon after occupied by Napoleon's empire from 1810 to 1814 but avoided most of the fighting. Its occupation angered the Oldenburgs in Russia, the Romanov, so much that the neutrality between France and Russia ended, leading to the eventual defeat of Napoleon's army. Meanwhile, Oldenburg gained new lands in the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and was elevated to a grand duchy in 1829. It mostly voluntarily joined the German Empire in 1871, and thus was able to retain its monarch, only to be dissolved at the end of World War I during the German Revolutions. The territories of Oldenburg became a part of the province of Lower Saxony following World War II. Today, the line of the grand dukes of Oldenburg continues with the current claimant, Anton Günther.

Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden

Sweden was mentioned before but it did fall back into the periphery of Oldenburg control for a brief time, albeit through a cadet branch of the family. In fact, the Swedish branch of the family begat the final Oldenburg branch (above). Now the thing to remember with Sweden is that it never actually likes its monarchs. Adolf Frederick was elected to the throne in 1751 by the parliament and was treated as a parliamentary pawn all his life. The only reason he was even elected to the throne was because he was related to the Russian Oldenburgs whom Sweden wanted to be on better terms with. Adolf ate too much and died, leaving little of a legacy behind.  His son, Gustav III, got uppity at parliament, declared himself absolute leader of Sweden, and was assassinated. Gustav IV, his son, was very dissatisfied with a lot of political and financial things, which allowed his uncle, Charles, to force Gustav to abdicate. Charles XIII succeeded him and was first seen as a more liberal king, but failed to do anything worthwhile. He died childless, leaving the country in the hands of the Napoleon-supported Frenchman Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, whose family rules Sweden to this day.

The Kingdom of Greece, showcasing the expansion of the state during the late 1800s and early 1900s

George I, King of the Hellenes (Greece)

Another rather forgotten kingdom in many peoples' minds was the Kingdom of the Hellenes, better known as Greece, which the House of Oldenburg ruled from 1862 until 1973. The dynasty took over after the previous dynasty, the Wittelsbach, disappointing the easily angered peoples of Greece. The family was a scion of the Danish Oldenburg house and helped bring Greece into the European sphere of politics after centuries under Turkish occupation. The first king, George I, ruled for 50 years and helped expand the meager borders of Greece outward in all directions. His son, Constantine, took Greece into the Balkan Wars of the early 1910s, but indecision during World War I led to his abdication in favor of his son, George II. George, though, wasn't in any better position to rule. A troubled government in 1923 asked the king to leave and the following year they formally deposed him. A decade later, in 1935, George II was reinstated but forced to acknowledge the fascist dictatorship of General Georgios Kondylis. Further indecision in the lead-in to World War II (George was pro-British, Kondylis was pro-Axis) caused the subsequent conquest of Greece by Italy and Germany in 1941. When George returned in 1946, his country was in ruin, corpses buried in shallow graves outside the raided royal palace. He died the next year and was succeeded by his brother, Paul. Paul ruled Greece during the decades of post-war rebuilding but the dynasty came under increasing threat by republicans. By the reign of his son, Constantine II, Greece was downright anti-royal. A coup against the monarchy forced Constantine to flee in 1967 and, although it took until 1973 to do so formally, the Greek monarchy came to an end at last. Constantine still is alive today and lives in numerous countries, including his former country of Greece.

 As an interesting aside, the House of Mountbatten, which will begin ruling the United Kingdom upon the death of Elizabeth II, is a cadet branch of the Greek Oldenburgs. Andrew married Princess Alice of Battenberg but the two became estranged after years of Andrew serving in the Greek army during World War I. Their only son, Philip, took the name Mountbatten due to anti-German sentiment in World War II and later married Princess Elizabeth prior to her elevation as Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom.

As you can see, the Oldenburg family is quite vast. This and the previous two weeks have established the breadth of the family, and I in no way covered everything. The family ruled over many different lands throughout their rather short existence, and the future seems quite bright for them. Denmark and Norway still retain Oldenburg monarchs while Britain will soon have one of its own. Meanwhile, Russia and Greece both have rather large pro-royal movements that have gained momentum in recent years. The future for the Oldenburgs seems bright indeed.

What's So Old About an Oldenburg? (Oldenburg, Part 1)

House of Oldenburg Coat of Arms

 I have spent considerable time discussing extinct and dissolved dynasties but have not yet completed my survey of extant dynasties. There are primarily two remaining for Europe, and a few smaller singular ones as well. However, no other has been able to maintain such an expansionist vision as the House of Oldenburg.

The Kalmar Union

The Kalmar Union was in crisis in 1448. The precarious union of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway had never been strong and certainly was wavering when the former king, Christopher of Bavaria, died. His widow, the Dowager Queen Dorothea of Brandenburg, needed to keep the union together and the Danish courts turned to a distant descendant of a bygone king, Count Christian of Oldenburg, to reunify the three states. Sweden and Norway were caught unawares. Sweden elected its own king, Charles VIII, instead of returning to the union, while Norway was fought over by the two rivals. Norway first went to Sweden, but quickly an agreement was made that attached it to Denmark in perpetuity. At the same time, Christian I married Dorothea, solidifying his claim to the Danish throne. Political catastrophe befell Charles VIII and the Kalmar Union was reestablished under the rule of Christian I and the the House of Oldenburg. In 1460, Christian I added to his Oldenburg lands the duchy of Schleswig, in Denmark, and country of Holstein, in the Holy Roman Empire. Holstein was elevated to a duchy soon after, allowing Christian I to play in the realm of German politics.

Oldenburg power in Sweden declined steadily over the next 100 years until Christian II, in 1520, massacred 100 anti-Union protesters in the Stockhold Bloodbath. The subsequent withdrawl by Sweden from the Kalmar Union the next year was no surprise and the House of Vasa took power there for the next century or so. Norway suffered from the dissolution, and in 1536 was permanently made into a Danish province, with all its hereditary lands such as Greenland and Iceland being transferred to Danish control (Greenland remains a Danish possession today). Denmark then jumped headlong into the Reformation, with Frederick I declaring Denmark-Norway to be a Lutheran country in 1526. However, religious tolerance toward Catholics caused internal strife and external war. When Frederick I died, the Catholic members of the Danish courts refused to acknowledge Frederick's son, Christian III, as king. The Catholics raised up Count Christopher of Oldenburg, a distant cousin of Christian's, as a possible regent for Christian III, while other Catholics tried to return Christian II, who had been deposed in 1523, to the throne. All of it was for naught, though. Despite a thorough ravaging across his lands, Christian III survived it all, defeated all his enemies, and reestablished Danish control. Denmark has been Lutheran ever since.

Christian IV, King of Denmark

Denmark was now a power to be reckoned with. After watching the progress of the Thirty Years War, in 1625 King Christian IV built up an army and set out for Catholic possessions in Germany. Unfortunately, his allies were weak and distracted, unwilling to give him more than lip-service aid. The Catholic army of Emperor Ferdinand II, on the other hand, was strong and had the element of surprise, since Christian IV didn't know it existed. After many failures and the conquest of half of Denmark, Christian IV negotiated a treaty that removed Denmark from German politics in perpetuity. More failures in the Torstenson War against the Netherlands and Sweden resulted in the loss of duties from ships passing through Danish waters in the Baltic Sea. Sweden took control of a large chunk of southern Norway and the Dutch no longer had to pay transport taxes to trade with Sweden. When Christian died, Frederick III decided to get revenge on Sweden. The Second Northern War, as it was called, was yet another Danish failure. Denmark was ravaged by Sweden and the Swedes were even able to invade Copenhagen, with the ice connecting it to the mainland frozen over in a rare cold spell. Charles X of Sweden wished to remove Denmark from existance but Copenhagen held fast against the Swedish army, especially once Dutch help finally came. When Prussia, Poland, and Austria all joined the side of Denmark, Sweden finally capitulated. In the Treaty of Copenhagen, borders were agreed upon and the territorial borders of Denmark and Sweden have remained the same ever since.

Frederick III and his successors entered into the age of absolutism as monarchs with a cause but no power to do anything about it. Twice they tried to go to war with Sweden again in hopes of reclaiming lost lands, and twice they failed to do so. Over the course of the 18th century, Denmark centralized around Copenhagen even while the Danish nobles stole power from the king. This all ended in 1807. The Napoleonic Wars had forced most of Europe to take sides, but Denmark was resolute on remaining neutral. Nonetheless, Britain feared that France would invade Denmark and take their ships, so Britain captured the majority of the Danish navy and added it into their own. Denmark stayed out of the war until it joined with France against the Sixth Coalition. It won some victories but lost the war and, in 1814, was forced to cede Norway to Sweden despite strong Norweigan resistance.

Kingdom of Denmark-Norway

The age of revolutions followed and on June 5, 1849, Denmark became a constitutional monarchy. King Frederick VII was forced to cede some power to the courts although he still retained significant executive power. Meanwhile, the problem of what to do with the Duchies of Schleswig-Holstein, which was majority German, came to the forefront. Two wars took place from 1849 until 1864 to determine its rightful place in the Danish government. In the end, Prussia won out and annexed both duchies to Brandenburg-Prussia. Denmark had to reinvent itself after this, and in 1901, King Christian IX finally allowed the population to run itself by permitting the majority in parliament to run the government. Prior to this time, the nobles still controlled govenrment regardless of parliamentary majorities.

Queen Margarethe II of Denmark

King Christian X was the last king to truly use his executive power when he dismissed the government in 1920. This sparked an event known as the Easter Crisis, after which the king promised to not interfere in politics again, despite the constitution permitting royal interference. In 1918, Iceland became an independent country in personal union with Denmark, with Christian X remaining king of both. However, after Iceland's conquest by Britain during World War II, the union dissolved in 1944 with Iceland becoming a republic. Queen Margarethe II has been the ruler of Denmark since 1972 and when she dies, the House of Oldenburg will at last be at an end in Denmark, being replaced with the House of Laborde de Monpezat.

In Norway, despite Sweden's annexation of the state in 1814, the House of Oldenburg returned in 1905. Political unrest against the Swedes ended with Sweden renouncing their overlordship over Norway and Norway becoming an independent kingdom. The government rejected a republican government and instead elected Prince Charles of Denmark, second son of King Frederick VIII Denmark, as their new king. Charles took on the regnal name Haakon VII and led his country through a harsh neutrality during World War I. He attempted the same during World War II but was forced to flee in 1940 to London, where he set up his wartime headquarters to retake Norway.

Harald V, King of Norway

Since the war, the kings of Norway have been held in the highest esteem and are quite possibly the most highly favored monarchs in Europe. Both Haakon VII and his son, Olav V, had massive funeral ceremonies fully funded by the people with overwhelming public support. The current king, Harald V, is popular in both Norway and the United Kingdom, where he spent much of his youth. His powers are much weaker than those of his predecessors but he still retains some say in the Norwegian government.