[December 11] Ögedei, khagan of the Mongol Empire

Local Name: ᠦᠭᠦᠳᠡᠢ
Parents: Genghis, khagan of the Mongol Empire, and Börte Ujin
Date of Birth: circa 1186
House: Borjigin
Spouse(s): Törgene of the Naimans, among others
Predecessor: Tolui
Reign: 1228 – 1241

Brief: Ögedei was the most powerful of the Mongol great khans. When his father still lived, Ögedei ruled over a large territory of land within Mongolia and in the Siberian Steppe. Beginning in 1211, he campaigned with his brothers against the Jin Dynasty of northern China, eventually annexing Chinese lands to how own. He then joined his brother, Changatai, in his conquest of Persia, during which time a feud broke out between Changatai and another brother, Jochi. Because of the feud, Ögedei was chosen as the most proper successor to Genghis, though a younger brother briefly ruled in a regency after Genghis' death in 1227. While Genghis was a great conqueror, it was Ögedei that brought the Mongol Empire to Europe's attention. He moved out in all directions, conquering most of Persia, northern China, the Caucasus kingdoms of Georgia and Armenia, Korea, and parts of India, eventually bringing him to the doorstep of Europe. Virtually all of Russia was conquered or reduced to vassalage, while Hungary and Poland were also annexed as vassals. Within Mongolia, Ögedei adopted Christian, Islamic, and Confucian aspects into a new bureaucratic government. He was a popular ruler, chasimatic and fair, while also faithful to his followers. His successors aspired to emulate him but generally failed. Further attacks were being made against Austria and the Holy Roman Empire when Ögedei died. His successors were unable to make further progress into Europe, though the empire did not reach its height until Kublai Khan.
Date of Death: 11 December 1241

Successor: Güyük

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Damasus I, pope of Rome (384)
• Al-Mutawakkil, Abbasid caliph (861)
• Nikephoros II, emperor of Constantinople (969)
• Llywelyn II, prince of Wales (1282)
• Michael VIII, emperor of Constantinople (1282)
• Ranuccio II, duke of Parma (1694)
• Kokaku, emperor of Japan (1840)
• Kamehameha V, king of Hawai'i (1872)

[August 25] Temujin, khagan of the Mongolian Empire

Surnamed: Genghis Khan (Чингис хаан)

Parents: Yesügei, leader of the Borjigin clan, and Oulen of Olkhunut

Date of Birth: circa 1162

House: Borjigin

Spouse(s): Börte, daughter of Dei Seichen, chieftan of the Onggirat clan, and Tacchotan

Predecessor: Hotula Khan

Reign: 1206 – 1227

Summary: Descended from khans of the Khamag Mongol Confederation, that ruled much of Mongolia in the previous century, Temujin was born to the leader of the Borijin clan, one of the more powerful families in Mongolia, but his early life was harsh. At the age of nine, his father died and his clan rejected him due to his age. Temujin and his mother and siblings left and lived in poverty for many years until Temujin was captured by former allies of his father, the Tayichi'ud. His escape at the age of twenty inspired many to come to his side. Years after originally intended, Temujin married Börte of the Onggirat clan, and cemented his first political alliance which was further aided by the births of his four sons and heirs. To help him in his rise to power, Temujin allied himself to the khan of the Kerait, Wang Khan. As a military commander, Temujin broke with tradition almost immediately, granting promotions based on merit rather than family ties. He also added conquered peoples into his growing empire as citizens rather than slaves, offering them both protection and military positions. As Temujin conquered, the loyalty of those he conquered inevitably shifted to him. By 1206, Temujin had conquered and assimilated the Merkits, Naimans, Mongols, Keraits, Tatars, Uyghurs, and many other tribes into his empire. At a meeting of the Mongol chieftains, Temujin was made the universal khan of the empire—the Khagan, though the title would only be conferred upon him posthumously—and the new monarch took the title Genghis Khan.

With his back covered, Genghis Khan began his wars of expansion. He first went after the Western Xia dynasty in northern China, defeating it without much difficulty by 1209. He then moved onto the Jun Dynasty ruling in Manchuria, sacking Beijing in 1215 and forcing the dynasty into the fringes of its territory. An escaped rival who had fled to the Kara-Khitan Khanate was the next target on Genghis' list. He was soundly defeated and killed in 1218, spreading the Mongol Empire all the way to Europe. When Genghis Khan attempted to open negotiations for a trade treaty with the Persian Khwarezmian Empire in Iran, he was met with outright refusal and the deaths of many of his entourage. Genghis Khan personally led the army that defeated the Shah of Persia, forcing the shah into hiding and eventual death by treachery. Genghis moved north to Samarkand and then Bukhara, destroying everything in his path including entire towns and villages. Capturing the trade city of Urgench was the most difficult affair and the Mongols had to adapt to city fighting, which increased their casualties. When the city was finally suppressed, Genghis declared that the entire population was to be killed for their affront, and up to 1.2 million people were massacred, the largest known massacre in recorded history. Once Persia was secured, Genghis split his army to return to Mongolia, marching through Aghanistan and northern India while the other army marched through the Caucasus and Russia. One-by-one, the march home reduced local states to vassals of the Mongol Empire. Georgia, Armenia, Crimea, the Kievan Rus', and Transoxiana all fell between 1220 and 1227. Rebellions by the Western Xia puppet state in China forced Genghis to return to his first victory twenty years later in 1226. After defeating them again in 1227, Genghis had the entire imperial family executed, ending in further pretensions in this region. Soon after his victory against the Western Xia, Genghis Khan died under mysterious circumstances. While there are many different stories attempting to resolve the mystery, none has ever been confirmed. His eldest son, Jochi, whose legitimacy was always in question, died a year before the Khan. His third son, Ögedei, was the most level-headed of his four sons and chosen to succeed Genghis as Khagan after a short regency led by Tolui, the Khan's youngest son.

Date of Death: 25 August 1227
Successor: Tolui

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Gratian, emperor of Rome (383)
• Gennadius I, patriarch of Constantinople (471)
• Hugues III, duke of Burgundy (1192)
• St. Louis IX, king of France (1270)
• Christian V, king of Denmark (1699)
• Jean III, pretender to France (1940)

[August 11] Möngke Khan, great khan of the Mongol Empire

True Name: Мөнх хаан
Parents: Tolui, great khan of the Mongol Empire, and Sorghaghtani Beki of the Kereyid Clan
Date of Birth: 10 January 1209

House: Borjigin

Spouse(s): (1) Qutuqui of the Ikheres Clan, (2) Oghul-Khoimish of the Oirats Clan, and (3) Chubei

Predecessor: Güyük Khan
Reign: 1251 – 1259

Summary: The greatest expander of Genghis Khan's empire, Möngke was born to Genghis' son, Tolui, although he was raised by another son, Ogedei. In 1230, Möngke followed his uncle to war against the Jin Dynasty of Manchuria. His father died in 1232 and he became the ruler of Tolui's expansive khanate. In 1235, Möngke was once again sent out by his uncle to defeat the Russians and Bulgars in the Ural Mountains. After his victories there, he went south to subdue the Caucasus region. By 1240, Möngke was helping his brothers and cousins in conquering Kiev. He wished to save the city but when the defenders refused an offer of surrender, the Mongol army sacked it. Möngke returned to Mongolia in 1241 whereupon his uncle, Ogedei, died. Ogedei's son, Güyük was elected thereafter but met harsh resistance from Genghis' brother, Temuge Odchigen. Möngke and Orda Khan were to preside over the trial of Ordchigen when Güyük suddenly died in 1248. Möngke suddenly became the chief claimant to the Mongol throne. His competitor, Batu, was ill and decided to support Möngke in his bid, which allowed the young khan to become the fourth Great Khan of the Mongol Horde in succession to Genghis Khan. Up to 300 Mongol aristocrats may have died in the brief succession dispute that followed, but by 1252, Möngke was the uncontested ruler of the Horde.

Möngke was most instrumental in the safe passage afforded to the Silk Road. He turned local princes into salaried bureaucrats and made merchants using the road subject to specific taxes. He sent out investigators to ensure that merchants and princes were not overtaxing caravans along the route, as well. During conquests, Möngke punished soldiers that plundered without authorization. Möngke also used people from throughout his empire—Christians, Muslims, Jews; Chinese, Arabs, Indians—to manage the Empire. To stabilize the economy, Möngke began limiting the issuance of paper money and create the Department of Monetary Affairs. An extensive census was held during the entirety of his reign, covering such vast a region as Iran, Afghanistan, Georgia, Armenia, Russia, Central Asia, and North China. He used the data from this to fairly tax the people throughout the empire based on percentage quotas. In 1253, Möngke conquered Tibet but made the entire Buddhist network in the country exempt from taxes. Möngke was Buddhist and most of his family was also Buddhist until the Persian and Arab conquests caused many to convert to Islam. Still, to ensure peace throughout the Empire, Möngke generally allowed regions to retain their local religions. The conquests of the Mongol Empire between 1251 and 1259 were significant. Korea was conquered then allowed to rule as a vassal state. China was surrounded, with Yunnan in northern India, Vietnam, and Tibet all conquered in a relatively short time.  In Delhi, Möngke became the de facto ruler after assisting the legitimate king to reclaim his throne. In the Middle East, Möngke's brother Hulegu invaded Iran and sacked Baghdad in 1258, then continued on to Syria where he took Damascus, Aleppo, and Gaza. Möngke was in the midst of the conquest of China when he caught dysentery or cholera in August 1259. The Mongol expansion ceased for a time and war broke out between his brothers, Kublai Khan and Ariq Koke. Kublai won the war, but the unified Mongol Empire ended with Mönke's death, leaving numerous successor states throughout Asia.

Date of Death: 11 August 1259
Successor: Kublai Khan

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Magnentius, usurper of Rome (353)
• Flavian, archbishop of Constantinople (449)
• Wilfred I, count of Barcelona (897)
• Guttorm, king of Norway (1204)

[February 10] Chengzong, khagan of the Mongolian Empire

True Name: Temür Öljeytü Khan (Öljiyt Tömör or 鐵穆耳)

Parents: Zhenjin, son of Kublai Khan, and Kokejin

Royal House: Yuan

Spouse: Bulugan

Reign: 1294 – 1307

Predecessor: Kublai Khan

Summary: As the successor of the great Kublai Khan, first Mongol khagan to rule over China as well as the largest Mongol empire in history, Chengzong had a lot of work to do. Kublai outlived both his eldest son and his second son, Temür, who was Chengzong's father. Temür died when Chengzong was 21, and the young prince retained his mother as an advisor throughout his reign. From 1286 until his own coronation in 1294, he was the obvious heir and campaigned with his grandfather regularly. Kublai appointed him governor of Karakorum, the capital of the Mongol Empire, and there he received the submission of three princes of a rival Mongol line. In 1294, Kublai died and a kurultai (election council) was called to elect the next Great Khan. Despite many years as the unofficial heir, he required the vote of the khanate to gain the throne. He won the crown against the contest of his brother, Gammala, and became the second Yuan Emperor of China.

As Great Khan and Emperor, Chengzong was a more conservative ruler than his grandfather. He maintained the borders but looked to internal reform rather than outright expansion. He cancelled planned invasions of Japan and Vietnam, instead favoring simple submissions and tribute. Chengzong did, however, send help to Burma to help quell a revolt there. He diversified the bureaucracy of China by brining in Mongols, Muslims, Tibetans, Taoists, and Christians, although he personally remained a Buddhist. Problems within the khanate began under his reign. The Ilkhanate converted to Islam in 1295 and broke ties with the Great Khanate. Meanwhile, the Chagatai Khanate, one of the largest branches, was in the midst of a civil division that pitted them occasionally against any neighbor who got in the way. They were eventually pacified, but it did not last long. Other branches of the khanate were more respecting of their elected, though mostly titular, leader, but the integrity of Genghis Khan's empire was fading. It faded further with the death of Chengzong because he did not leave an heir when he died in 1307. After his death, the Mongols only followed the Great Khan nominally, preferring instead to follow their own goals.

Date of Death: 10 February 1307

Successor: Külüg Khan

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• William IX, duke of Aquitaine (1126)
• Baldwin III, king of Jerusalem (1162)
• Shijo, emperor of Japan (1242)
• Margaret II, count of Flanders (1278)
• Leo XII, pope of Rome (1829)
• Abdul Hamid II, sultan of the Ottoman Empire (1918)
• Pius XI, pope of Rome (1939)