The Succession to Burgundy in 1461

The Burgundian state under
Philip the Bold, 1363 – 1404

In 1461, Philippe de Rouvres, the last duke of the senior line of the Capetian house of Burgundy, died leaving no obvious heir. He had no sisters, uncles, or aunts, although he did leave behind a wife, Marguerite III, countess of Flanders, Artois, Burgundy, Nevers, and Rethel. This came at a time of crisis in France. The Hundred Years War had only just paused the previous year and tensions were still high. Philippe, the young duke, was expected to live a long life and continue a dynasty that had existed since the eleventh century. Yet over the course of that century, almost every cadet line had ended after only a few generations, the most recent having ended in 1298.

In lieu of an obvious heir, the Burgundians had to figure out who should come next. There were two obvious candidates and an arguably more rightful, albeit overlooked option. The obvious choices were Carlos II, king of Navarre, and Jean II, king of France.

Carlos II the Bad, king of Navarre

Both Carlos and Jean were descended from sisters of Philippe's grandfather, Odo-Eudes IV. The elder sister was Marguerite, who married Louis X of France, had a daughter with him, the future Jeanne, and then promptly fell into ill-repute for sneaking off with a knight (the Tour de Nesle affair). She died under mysterious circumstances in 1315 while in a French prison, allowing her husband to remarry and promptly die shortly afterwards. That daughter, though, survived and became queen of Navarre in 1328. Carlos II, Jeanne's son and heir, bases his claim on her descent. Carlos, however, had become infamous in France as one of the most dangerous and recalcitrant vassals in French history. Due to his royal descent, he occasionally claimed the French throne, and he also stirred up all sorts of trouble in Paris between 1356 and 1360, when King Jean II was sitting comfortably in the Tower of London in England, a prisoner of Edward III. Although Carlos and Jean patched things up in 1360, they still were hardly friends. Nonetheless, Carlos could legitimately claim male-preference primogeniture as the reason for why he should become the next duke of Burgundy. The descent of his grandmother, as the eldest sister of Duke Robert II, should take precedent over a younger line.

Jean II the Good,
king of France

Jean II, however, was not about to allow the quarrelsome Navarrese king become the major power in both the south and east of France. Jean's mother was Jeanne the Lame, the younger daughter of Duke Robert II of Burgundy. This made him one degree closer to a previous duke. Jean was also the senior agnate of the entire Capetian dynasty and, as king of France, he was suzerain over Burgundy. Thus, he could use any or all of these excuses to claim Burgundian throne. Indeed, he won the debate, but he used his weakest argument to assert his claim. He argued that he was the head of the family and, as such, the title should revert to him since he was seniormost of the line. But there are two problems with this. First, Burgundy had never been a French apanage duchy. Indeed, Burgundy first joined the royal line through the merger of the former Burgundian royal line in the tenth century to a Capetian cadet branch. Therefore, women could inherit the throne and pass it on to their descendants through a process called substitution. The next agnate in line, then, was Carlos of Navarre. Following this same logic, Carlos also held the proximity of blood according to Roman and Burgundian law since he represented his deceased mother and grandmother. Jean may appear closer, but Carlos represents his grandmother, who was older than Jean's mother. Naturally, Carlos resisted Jean's encroachment on his rights, but to no effect. The recent treaties he had signed bound him to French authority and he essentially had no ability to adequately assert his case.

Pedro I the Just
king of Portugal

Second, while Jean may be the head agnate of the Capetian dynasty, there is still a single cadet branch of the Burgundian tree extant in 1361 and this line should get precedent over any of Jean's agnatic claims. Agnatic law says that when a male line goes extinct, one goes back in time along that line until another male line is found. In 1361, that line would have fallen squarely on Pedro I, king of Portugal, the agnatic heir to Philippe I of Burgundy. When Robert the Old, the first Capetian duke of Burgundy, died, his youngest grandson ventured into Castile, married a Castilian princess and was given the county of Portugal as a dowry. His son, Afonso, declared himself king of Portugal and fought a short war against León to assert his title. He and his legitimate descendants continued to rule Portugal until 1383, when Pedro's son Fernando I died leaving behind a daughter who was inconveniently married to the king of Castile. But in 1361, Pedro was still quite alive, making him the senior agnate of the Burgundian branch of the Capetian dynasty and the heir general to Philippe de Rouvres. Following Jean II's own logic, Pedro should become duke of Burgundy.

The obvious problem with this is that Pedro was in Portugal and was also, annoyingly, close allies with the English. There was no chance Pedro would be traveling to Burgundy anytime soon to claim his birthright. Instead, Jean seized the duchy and subsumed it within his royal title. When he died in 1364, his son, Charles V, granted it to his brother (following the will of his father), who became Philip the Bold, the first duke of the house of Capet-Valois-Burgundy. The duchy was now securely under dynastic control again. Philip married Marguerite III of Flanders in 1369 and received all her lands when her father died in 1384. Meanwhile, the legitimate Portuguese line went extinct in 1385, causing it to descend upon the illegitimate house of Aviz. The Iberian kings had lost their claim to Burgundy. Philippe could now rest assured that his claims were secure and his future bright. The rest is history.

[October 5] Alfonso VIII, king of Castile

Surnamed: "The Noble"
Parents: Sancho III, king of Castile, and Blanche of Navarre
Date of Birth: 11 November 1155
House: Burgundy
Spouse(s): Eleanor, daughter of Henry II, king of England, and Eleanor, duchess of Aquitaine
Predecessor: Sancho III

Reign: 1158 – 1214
Brief: Raised by a trouble regency alliance, Alfonso asserted himself at the age of fifteen and began to actively retake lands held by the Almohad Moors. He had his first victory in 1177 against the city of Vuenca, and he followed by forming an brief alliance between Navarre, León, Portugal, and Arágon against the southern Muslim empire. The Treaty of Cazola in 1179 defined which areas of the south would go to which countries. Open warfare between the Christians and the Almohads broke out in 1195 and at the Battle of Alarcos, Alfonso was defeated by Caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf al-Mansur. Castile went on the defensive and were pushed back to the hills just south of Toledo, Castile's capital. In 1212, the pope called a second crusade which Alfonso led. One-by-one, the cities of the Almohads were retaken and at Las Navas de Tolosa on July 16th, Caliph Muhammad an-Nasir fled and the Almohads left the peninsula. Alfonso died two years later and was succeeded by his son, Enrique.

Date of Death: 5 October 1214

Successor: Enrique I

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Justin II, emperor of Constantinople (578)
• Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor (1056)
• Philippe III, king of France (1285)

[June 15] Philip III, duke of Burgundy

Surnamed: "The Good"
Parents: John II, duke of Burgundy, and Margaret of Bavaria

Date of Birth: 31 July 1396

House: Valois-Burgundy

Spouse: (1) Michelle, daughter of Charles VI, king of France, and Isabella of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, then (2) Bonne, daughter of Philip, count of Eu, and Marie, duchess of Auvergne, then (3) Isabella, daughter of John I, king of Portugal, and Philippa of Lancaster

Predecessor: John II (in Burgundy

Reign: 1419 – 1467

Summary: Philip may well be the most important figure in Burgundian history due to his inheritance of much of the Low Countries during his reign. He was married at the age of four to a French princess and, after she died, married two more women in quick succession. Only his third marriage, to a Portuguese princess, did he produce any children and only one, Charles, survived to succeed him. Philip, however, had at least eighteen illegitimate children, some of whom rose to prominence in the clergy. When Philip's father was assassinated in 1419, Philip became duke of Burgundy and count of Flanders, Artois and Franche-Comté. Since he suspected French involvement in the assassination, Philip allied himself with England during the Hundred Years' War.

Philip became famous in 1430 for capturing Joan of Arc at Compiègne and handing her over to the English where she was tried and burned at the stake for heresy. However, he largely stayed out of the war and eventually, in 1435, decided in favor of Charles VII as king of France against the claims of the English. In 1429, he purchased the marquisate of Namur, followed in 1432 with the conquest of Hainault, Holland, Frisia, and Zealand in what was known as the Hook and Cod War. The duchies of Brabant and Limburg as well as the margraviate of Antwerp were inherited in 1430, and Luxembourg was purchased in 1443. Many years later, in 1456, Philip installed his son as bishop of Utrecht and his nephew as prince-bishop of Liège. Thus, Philip controlled an area encompassing most of what is today Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg in one vast territory that became known as the Burgundian Inheritance. Philip's fame comes not entirely from his military conquests or expansion, but also from his famous royal court. The court of Burgundy flourished during his reign and the duke regularly changed capitals. His court was known as the most splendid in Europe and between the arts and the luxuries, it is no wonder that alliances with Burgundy were regularly sought. Philip died in 1467 after having fought a short war with France to ensure the succession of his son, Charles, who later became known as Charles the Bold and was the penultimate Valois dukes of Burgundy.

Date of Death: 15 June 1467

Successor: Charles

Other Monarch Deaths:

Robert I, king of France (923)

Go-Sanjo, emperor of Japan (1073)

Frederick II, duke of Austria (1246)

Andronikos III, emperor of Constantinople (1341)

John VI, emperor of Constantinople (1383)

Murad I, sultan of the Ottoman Empire (1389)

Frederick III, emperor of Germany (1888)

[May 28] Afonso IV, king of Portugal

Surnamed: "The Brave"

Parents: Denis, king of Portugal, and Elizabeth of Aragon

Date of Birth: 8 February 1291

House: Capet-Burgundy
Spouse: Beatrice, daughter of Sancho IV, king of Castile, and Maria de Molina

Predecessor: Denis

Reign: 1325 - 1357

Summary: Born in Lisbon, he was the eldest but less favored son of King Denis of Portugal. An illegitimate son of the king curried more favor and it took all of Afonso's power to secure the throne for himself. Civil wars between Afonso and his brother were commonplace before his coronation. When Afonso became king, he sentenced his brother to exile in Castile, stripping him of all lands and titles. For many years, his brother continued to incite rebellions in Portugal until the two finally signed a peace treaty.

During Afonso's lifetime, new alliances were formed with Castile. Afonso himself married a Castilian princess in 1309, and he married his daughter, Maria, to a Castilian king in 1328. His son, Pedro, was betrothed to a Castilian princess as well. Portugal then went to war with Castile because the king, Alfonso XI, was abusing Afonso's daughter, Maria. The two Iberian powers finally came to terms in 1339 and the next year, they led a joint invasion of Moorish Iberia (Southern Spain). During the later years of his reign, Castilian exiles flooded into Portugal fleeing from the civil war between Pedro the Cruel of Castile and his half-brother Henry of Trastamara. When Afonso's son, Pedro, openly acknowledged a Castilian heiress as his mistress, the political intrigue in Portugal reached its height. Aging, Afonso was unable to stop his son from making a mockery of his court. Pedro's illegitimate children with Ines de Castro grew in power and authority within Portugal while Pedro's legitimate son, Fernando, remained sickly.  In 1355, Afonso had enough. He had Ines executed. Pedro responded by  taking control of the military and devastating Portugal. The two only reconciled in 1357, and Afonso died only days later. Afonso's only real contribution to the future of Portugal was the enlargement and state financing of the Portuguese navy, which in the next century would reach India under Vasco da Gama. The Age of Exploration began during his reign, though discoveries only came years later.

Date of Death: 28 May 1357

Successor: Pedro I

Other Monarch Deaths:

Caterina, countess of Forli (1509)

Saito Dosan, daimyo of Japan (1556)

Sakuramachi, emperor of Japan (1750)

Edward VIII, king of the United Kingdom (1972)

[March 21] Robert I, duke of Burgundy

Surname: "The Old"

Parents: Robert II, king of the Franks, and Constance of Arles

Date of Birth: 1011

House: Capet

Predecessor: Henri I, king of the Franks

Spouse: Helie, daughter of Dalmace I, lord of Semur, then Ermengarde, daughter of Fulk III, duke of Anjou, and Hildegarde of Sundgau

Reign: 1032 – 1076

Summary: Robert was one of the many children of King Robert II and his wife Constance. Robert grew up in a house of little love, with his father constantly trying to annul his marriage to his wife to no avail. Robert's oldest brother, Hugues, was crowned co-king of the Franks in 1017. In 1025, Hugues, Robert, and their brother Henri began a rebellion against Robert II. Sometime in late 1025 or early 1026, Hugues died from a fall from his horse. Henri and Robert kept the rebellion going despite losing support from their mother, Constance. Constance did not help in the dispute. Once Hugues died, she supported the younger Robert as heir to the throne rather than the elder Henri. The brothers almost came to blows but King Robert II resolved the issue in 1027 when he crowned Henri co-king. For the next four years, Henri and Robert kept their father in a virtual prison within Paris until he died in 1031. In that year, King Henri I became king and prince Robert began a revolt of his own against his brother with the support of Constance. King Henri wisely resolved the issue by granting his brother the significant duchy of Burgundy in 1032, a domain which would remain in his descendant's hands for two centuries.

Less is known about Robert's rule as duke in Burgundy. From what is known, it seems he had little control over the regional lords. Robert was often forced to plunder his own lands for taxes and fees. Churches were an especially common target since they often lacked protection. The entire diocese of Autun was made into a private possession of the duke and Robert also seized the wine production center of Dijon. In 1055, Robert abandoned his wife and personally murdered her brother and father. His popularity was so low that one of his own bishops would not dedicate a church to him. After living such a long life, it is no surprise that Robert outlived his two eldest surviving children. His first son, Hugues, died at the age of fifteen in battle. His second son, Henri, lived to be 39 before dying. It is from Henri that Robert found his heir, Hugues I, when he died in 1076. A brother of that duke, Henri, became count of Portugal and his descendants in the male line ruled Portugal until 1853.

Date of Death: 21 March 1076

Successor: Hugues I

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Robert II, duke of Burgundy (1306)

Two States, One King (Divided Rule)

Two years ago last December, I completed my master's dissertation on the topic of dynastic unions. Specifically, I focused on the dynastic union of England and the United Provinces of the Netherlands under King William III and the union of Great Britain (later the United Kingdom) and the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg (later Kingdom of Hanover) under Kings George I-IV and William IV. It was a daunting task with a strong emphasis on ruling two states at the same time. Yet these individuals were only the last British monarchs in a long series of rulers to preside over multiple states simultaneously. Indeed, for a while it was vogue for monarchs to try and collect states, as it were, in order to expand their empire. Some they would fold into their own "mother" state while others would remain under outside control.


England's Bouts of Duality
Let's start this little survey with a look at what Britain has controlled off-and-on throughout its existence. I've already mentioned two so let's chalk them up:

William III, King of England
& Stadtholder of the Netherlands

• The Kingdoms of England, Scotland & Ireland, et al. with The United Provinces of the Netherlands (1689 – 1702)
• Ruler: King William III who was also Stadtholder of the Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders & Overijssel (most of the Netherlands)
• The Dutch Estates General ruled the Netherlands in his stead
• The English Privy Council ruled Britain in his stead
• How'd it start: William III conquered England (sort of) and deposed his father-in-law, thereby taking the crown. He was already stadtholder at the time.
• Fate: Died leaving England in the hands of his sister-in-law Anne and Netherlands in the hands of nobody in particular

• The Kingdom of Great Britain & Ireland, et al. with The Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Electorate of Brunswick (1714 – 1803, 1813 – 1832)
• Rulers: Kings George I, George II, George III, George IV, and William IV who were also hereditary rulers of the region immediately around Hanover in Germany
• The English Privy Council, the Queen, and/or the Prince of Wales ruled Britain in their stead
• The Hanoverian Regency and/or the Prince of Wales ruled Hanover in their stead
• Communication was via a special agency unaffiliated with the British government
• How'd it start: To avoid another Catholic monarch, the British monarchy went to their 52nd choice in the line of succession: an elderly granddaughter of James I. She died and her German son inherited Britain.
• The Kingdom of Great Britain & Ireland became the United Kingdom in 1801
• The Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg became the Kingdom of Hanover in 1814
• Fate: Separate succession laws left Britain in the hands of Queen Victoria and Hanover in the hands of King Ernest Augustus



Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg. Note: Bremen, Verden, Osnabrück, and
Lauenburg were also all dynastic unions. Brunswick -Wolfenbüttel was
a separate possession of a younger branch of the House of Este-Welf.

These are rather late additions, so let's step back into time and see what other dynastic unions existed. Two have already been implied though not mentioned:

• The Kingdom of England with The Kingdom of Ireland (1542 – 1651, 1659 – 1801)
• Rulers: All English monarchs from Henry VIII onwards until 1801
• The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland ruled in their stead
• How'd it start: The Kingdom of Ireland replaced the semi-sovereign and often autonomous Lordship of Ireland which was also presided over by the Lord Lieutenant. Ireland had been partially conquered by Normans in the 12th century and Henry VIII finished the job...mostly.
• Fate: Ireland had little independence in the union and Great Britain and Ireland finally formed a constitutional union in 1801

The Royal Standard of the United Kingdom
(Note: First and Fourth quarters represent England, the
second represents Scotland, and the third Ireland.)

• The Kingdoms of England & Ireland with The Kingdom of Scotland (1603 – 1651, 1660 – 1707)
• Rulers: All English monarchs from James I onwards until 1707
• The Scottish Parliament and Privy Council ruled in their stead
• How'd it start: Elizabeth I died leaving three possible heirs: the most senior—the Scottish king—or one of two squabbling heiresses who broke the queen's rules. She went with the Scotsman.
• Fate: Scotland attempted to end the union but failed and were forced to enter into a constitutional union in 1707

There are dozens of other unions England had with other states throughout its medieval history. Most of these territories were in France. While England very briefly claimed true control over the French throne in the 15th century, I will gloss over that to focus on two other historically more important territories that England once controlled:

Map of France in 1154. Normandy is the pink bit in
the north. Aquitaine is the large peach part in the
middle and south. Note: Brittany (orange on left)
and Anjou (center red) were also dynastic unions.

• The Kingdom of England with The Duchy of Normandy (1066 – 1087, 1106 – 1144, 1150 – 1204 [– Present])
• Rulers: William I, Henry I, Stephen, Henry II, Richard I and John
• A regent and/or Lord Lieutenant ruled Normandy in their stead
• How'd it start: William I of Normandy invaded England and killed his predecessor, Harold II, and deposed the upstart, Edgar II.
• Fate: Conflict with France over sovereignty in Normandy resulted in the French confiscation of Normandy in 1204.
• Today: The Channel Islands, primarily Guernsey and Jersey, remain Crown Dependencies under the name "Duchy of Normandy" and are the last remnant of the once-great duchy. These islands are not a part of the United Kingdom though are administered by it. The Lieutenant Governor of each set of islands rules in the monarch's stead.

• The Kingdom of England with The Duchy of Aquitaine ([1152] 1204 – 1362)
• Rulers: Technically, Eleanor of Aquitaine ruled until 1204, but her husband, Henry II, and sons, Richard I and John, both ruled in her stead many times. Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, and Edward III also ruled.
• A Regent ruled in their stead.
• How'd it start: Henry II married the Aquaitaine duchess, Eleanor, and took her lands for his own.
• Fate: The French got fed up with England not respecting them, so reclaimed their fief. England countered by claiming the French crown. So began the Hundred Years' War. Neither side really could claim the title after that.

Finally, just as a fun aside, the British monarch is still technically in one last dynastic union (not counting the Commonwealth countries) with a tiny little island sitting in the Irish Sea:

The Kingdom of Mann was
once much larger and included
the Western Isles of Scotland

• The Kingdom of England with The Lordship of Mann (1765 – Present)
• Rulers: Every British monarch since George III
• A Lieutenant Governor rules in their stead
• How'd it start: In 1399, Henry IV conquered the Kingdom of Mann from its hereditary ruler. It had previously alternated between Norwegian, Scottish, and English control for centuries. It fell into the Stanley family and, in 1504, they renounced the title "King" in favor of "Lord". In 1765, the Baroness Strange sold the title back to the English crown.
• Fate: Today, the monarch of the United Kingdom is also, separately, the Lord of Mann. It is administered separately as with the Channel Islands (see Duchy of Normandy).

More Problems than an Oversized Chin

The Habsburgs of Austria had their own divided monarchy that, at times, remained divided for long periods of time, but every once in a while, they would recombined to become truly behemoth political entities that would span the breath of Europe. Three long-term unions and one amazingly brief union created a Habsburg empire that still boggles modern minds.

• The Archduchy of Austria with The Kingdoms of Bohemia & Hungary (1438 – 1918)
• Rulers: Various Habsburg monarchs until 1918
• The Habsburg monarchs ruled Bohemia through various means, but rarely directly
• How'd it start: Albert married the daughter of the previous king of both Bohemia and Hungary. He was crowned king of Hungary in 1438 and Bohemia six months later, but never ruled in the latter. The Habsburgs did not firmly establish themselves in either until 1526.
• Fate: Hungary remained a part of Austria-Hungary until 1918 and the monarchy was officially ended on 1921. Bohemia was incorporated into the Austrian Empire in 1806 and became crown land in 1867. It later became half of Czechoslovakia after World War I.

Map of the Ethnic Composition of Austria-Hungary in 1910. Note: Only Austria, Hungary and Bohemia were legal
dynastic unions. Bosnia, Croatia, Dalmatia, Transylvania, Galicia, and Moravia were all artificial monarchies.

Map of the Iberian Peninsula, 1570. Note: Galicia (top left),
Aragon (top right), and Cordoba (bottom center) were all
in dynastic unions with Castile (Spain) during this period.

• The Kingdom of Spain with The Kingdom of Portugal (1560 – 1640)
• Rulers: Philip II of Spain, Philip III and Philip IV
• A Viceroy of Portugal ruled in their stead
• How'd it start: The last obvious heir to the Portuguese throne died leaving it vacant with the Spanish monarch, Philip II, in a prime dynastic, political, and military position to claim it.
• Fate: Fed up with Spanish domination of politics and an obvious loss of their overseas empire, Portuguese revolutionaries deposed Philip IV and installed a native king.

A Map of the Burgundian Inheritance. The lands
dynastically unified to Spain in the Low Countries
were vast and spanned seven modern countries.

• The Kingdom of Spain with The Duchy of Burgundy (1516 – 1555)
• Ruler: Charles I of Spain, also known as Holy Roman Emperor Charles V
• Many different methods were used to rule his empire
• How'd it start: First off, this dynastic union appears very mediocre for all the hype, so let's explain. The Kingdom of Spain at this time did not just include what we think of today as Spain. It also included all of Italy south of Rome and Sicily. He inherited all of this from his mom, though technically she was still alive until 1555. Next, Burgundy refers to a large area that today includes Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg and parts of Germany and France. It was on par in side to Portugal but with much more valuable land. He inherited this lot from his dad, Philip the Handsome, in 1506. In addition, Charles was also an Archduke of Austria, was elected Holy Roman Emperor (which technically means he was King of Italy and Germany), and he also ruled over all the new Spanish possessions overseas. So in literal size, his empire was quite large for a European monarch.
• Fate: Inevitably, he tired of ruling such a large empire. He actually abdicated two years before his death. Spain, Italy, and Burgundy he left to his son, Philip II. The Holy Roman Empire he left to his brother, Ferdinand I.

Danes Among Us

Denmark has led a long history of dual monarchy. Stationed on the small peninsula that divides the North Sea from the Baltic Sea, it is in prime position to claim both the fjords of Norway and Sweden and the flats of Germany. And claim them it did, though not without significant resistance. Two long dynastic unions proved that a small country could still play it large.

• The Kingdom of Denmark with The Kingdoms of Sweden & Norway (1397 – 1523)
• Rulers: Margaret, Erik, Christopher III, Christian I, John and Christian II
• Sweden and Norway maintained regencies in their stead (and sometimes against them)
• How'd it start: Queen Margaret I of Denmark married King Haakon VI of Norway and their son, Olaf III, became king of both in 1380. In 1389, Margaret united Sweden to Denmark and in 1396, Erik of Pomerania was elected the first king of all three realms. The union was formalized the next year via the Treaty of Kalmar.
• Fate: Almost immediately, the Swedes came into conflict with the Danes over Danish wars in northern Germany. Sweden elected an anti-king, Charles VIII, who was deposed and restored numerous times. Eventually Sweden would elect Gustav Vasa as king and secede from the union permanently, only to become involved in their own German wars.

The Kalmar Union. Note: Lower Finland was a dependency of Sweden while
Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, the Shetland Islands, and the Orkneys
were dependencies of Norway. Schleswig-Holstein in Germany was in a
dynastic union with Denmark throughout this time.

• The Kingdom of Denmark with The Kingdom of Norway (1536 – 1816)
• Rulers: All kings of Denmark until 1816
• Norway maintained a regency in their stead
• How'd it start: With the fall of the Kalmar Union (see above), Denmark retained Norway, though not without a fight. Denmark's dynastic claim over Norway was stronger, and Norway was unable to resist Danish domination to the same degree as Sweden.
• Fate: Norway was traded to Sweden following the Napoleonic Wars and, after a brief war between Norway and Sweden, the two countries entered into their own dynastic union that lasted until 1905, when Norway finally became an sovereign kingdom once more.

Poling your Weight Around

Poland, too, was the senior partner in a long dynastic union. While Poland jumped in and out of other unions throughout its history, it's union with one partner withstood the test of time.

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, 1618. The sheer size of this dynastic
union is unbelievable. Livonia (gray), Courland (greenish), and Prussia (peach)
were vassal states of Poland-Lithuania but not in dynastic union with it.

• The Kingdom of Poland with The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1382 – 1795)
• Rulers: All kings of Poland until the dissolution of the monarchy in 1795
• It is unknown how these monarchs ruled both realms
• How'd it start: Grand Duke Ladislas II of Lithuania married "King" Hedwig of Poland. When she died, Ladislas became ruler of both. 
• Fate: Sigismund II constitutionally unified the two lands in 1572, though both retained autonomy. The monarchy became elective after that date, though it stayed in the Vasa family of Sweden for many generations. The entire monarchy fell apart in the French Revolutionary Wars and its fractions were given to Russia, Prussia and Austria.

Conclusion

Almost every monarchic state in Europe at one time or another controlled another state. France was often the largest player, but its attachments were almost always geographically close to France and also geographically smaller. Spain ruled vast lands around the Mediterranean for many years, including much of southern Italy. Sweden and Denmark both had their hands on significant lands in Northern Germany for awhile. In the end, most dynastic unions have to come to an end. The junior partner either joins the senior partner in a constitutional union or the two separate permanently. Today, quasi-states such as Mann and the Channel Islands are exceptions rather than the rule.

Attempts to force dynastic unions, such as that of the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) and United Provinces (Netherlands) after the Napoleonic Wars, generally fail. The Prussian and Sardinian technique of blatant conquest and monarchic overthrow, such as in the unifications of Germany and Italy, seem to work better. The other technique, largely used by France and Spain, of slowly marrying into title-holding families and inheriting the titles also works better.

Nonetheless, throughout history most monarchies have experienced periods of dynastic union and it is an interesting, albeit often overlooked, aspect of nation-building that I find absolutely riveting.