[November 23] Edred, king of England

Parents: Edward the Elder, king of Wessex, and Eadgifu of Kent
Date of Birth: 923
House: Wessex
Predecessor: Edmund I

Reign: 946 – 955
Brief: Edred succeeded his elder brother, Edmund I, in 946 and soon after was recognized by the local Welsh rulers and the northern earls as king of Wessex. By the end of his first year as king, all of Northumbria was under his control and the Scots pledged fealty to him as overlord. But as soon as his control was complete, two Viking lords usurped the Northumbrian throne and began to harass the north. Olaf Sihtricson, a former king of Northumbria and Dublin, set up camp in York. Edred could do little to remove the menace, but the Northumbrians forced him out, replacing the king with Eric Haraldson, another Viking raider but one that could be controlled. When Eric Bloodaxe, a former king of Norway, moved in, however, Edred launched a campaign north to destroy the usurper. By convincing the Anglo-Saxon nobles to stay loyal to him, Edred managed to defeat Eric and push him off the island. By 952, Northumbria was under the control of lords loyal to Edred. The king died in 955, unmarried and without an heir. His nephew, Eadwig, succeeded him.

Date of Death: 23 November 955
Successor: Eadwig

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Berthold, duke of Bavaria (947)
• Ladislaus, king of Bohemia & Hungary (1457)
• William III, king of the Netherlands (1890)

[November 20] St. Edmund, king of East Anglia

Sobriquet: "The Martyr"
Parents: Æthelweard, king of East Anglia
Born: circa 841
House: East Anglia
Predecessor: Æthelweard

Reign: 855 – 869
Brief: Very little is known about Edmund, king of East Anglia, who was briefly mentioned in only the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and is associated with some coinage. Soon after his reign, East Anglia was decimated by Viking attacks, which destroyed most of the evidence of his existence. Although nothing is known of his reign, much is said about his death in 869. A large Danish army marched from Mercia into East Anglia and met Edmund in battle, where the king fell and the Danes conquered all of the land. The army was known as the "Great Heathen Army" and it continued to pillage England, passing into Wessex around 870 and then onto Northumbria. The leader, Ivar the Boneless, is said to have beheaded Edmund after he had been shot full of arrows. In 925, Æthelstan of Wessex opened a saint cult dedicated to Edmund and coins were minted in memorial of the king. These coins were widely used throughout England during the tenth century. In 1095, a large church was built for Edmund's relics and the site became one of the wealthiest pilgrimage sites in England. The shrine was destroyed during the English Reformation but a new site in Toulouse, France, opened up with some of the saved relics. While little is known about the historical king, Edmund lives on in Catholic circles as St. Edmund the Martyr.

Date of Death: 20 November 869
Successor: Oswald

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Albert II, margrave of Meissen (1314)
• Jean I, king of France (1316)

[November 17] Mary I, queen of England

Sobriquet: "Bloody Mary"
Parents: Henry VIII, king of England, and Catherine of Aragón
Born: 18 February 1516
House: Tudor
Spouse(s): Felipé II, king of Spain, son of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and Maria Manuela of Portugal
Predecessor: Edward VI or Jane

Reign: 1553 – 1558
Brief: The only surviving child of Henry VIII and his first wife, Mary was raised as a Catholic in an increasingly Protestant England. At the age of two, she was promised to the French Dauphin, but that eventually lapsed, being replaced with a betrothal to Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, which also later lapsed. Meanwhile, Henry VIII removed Mary from the line of succession to replace her with Elizabeth, his daughter from his second marriage. Mary was sickly and disappeared into obscurity for many years. Henry finally produced a son, Edward, in 1537 but it wasn't until 1543 that the family was reunited and Mary returned to the line of succession behind Edward and ahead of Elizabeth. Edward succeeded to the throne as a minor in 1547. His regents arranged to bypass Mary and Elizabeth in the succession, settling on a cousin, Jane, as the king's heir. When Edward died at the age of fifteen from an infected lung, Jane succeeded briefly to the throne, but Mary rallied a makeshift army in East Anglia and deposed the upstart queen nine days later.

As queen, Mary sought out a husband and found one in Charles V's son, Felipé of Spain, whom she married in 1554. There was little love between the couple and they never produced a child. Mary lashed out against Protestant leaders throughout her short reign. OVer a period of a week, she executed 283 people, mostly by burning, for heresy. She continued her persecutions until the end of her reign, though with declining frequency. In 1557, Felipé, now king of Spain, convinced Mary to go to war with France, which ended with the loss of Calais, the only remaining English possession on the continent. After 1557, Mary acknowledged Elizabeth as her successor. She died the next year of an influenza epidemic, though signs of other problems were also present. 

Date of Death: 17 November 1558
Successor: Elizabeth I

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Jin Kangdi, emperor of China (344)
• Valentinian I, emperor of Rome (375)
• Leo II, emperor of Constantinople (474)
• Jomei, emperor of Japan (641)
•  John III, king of Sweden (1592)
• Catherine II, empress of Russia (1796)
• Adolphe, grand duke of Luxembourg (1905)

[November 12] Cnut II, king of Denmark, Norway & England

Local Name: Knút inn ríki
Surnamed: "The Great"
Parents: Sweyn, king of Denmark & Norway, and Sigrid
Born: circa 985
House: Hairhair
Predecessor: Harold II (Denmark), Edmund II (England), and Olaf II (Norway)

Reign: 1018 – 1035
Brief: Cnut decisively entered history with his father's invasion of England in 1013 which left the prince in control of thee Danish fleet and army. A year later, Sweyn died and Cnut found himself on the defensive, fleeting to Denmark as an English army chased him out of England. He negotiated with his brother, Harald, and took a second fleet to England in 1015, fighting with Edmund II of England for fourteen months before finally forcing the Anglo-Saxon king's capitulation. Edmund died a few weeks later, leaving all of England under Danish control. He quickly consolidated his rule, marrying the queen mother Emma of Normandy and tracking down all surviving members of the house of Wessex. Though he originally sought to rule through his own men, Cnut eventually allowed local lords to rule in his name. In 1018, Harald in Denmark died and Cnut returned to claim the throne. There was no rebellion there, so Cnut went on a pilgrimage to Rome to witness the coronation of Holy Roman Emperor Conrad II. On his return trip, Cnut rallied forces in England and Denmark and claimed the Norwegian throne from Olaf II, who abdicated. Cnut was kind to the church and restored local institutions in all three kingdoms that he ruled over. He eventually died in 1035 and was buried at Winchester, leaving the entire kingdom to Harthacnut, who was unable to maintain control over England or Norway initially.

Date of Death: 12 November 1035
Successor: Harthacnut

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Boniface III, pope of Rome (607)
• Duncan II, king of Scots (1094)
• Louis III, king of Naples (1434)

[October 26] Ælfred, king of Wessex

Surnamed: "The Great"
Parents: Æthelwulf, king of Wessex, and Osburh
Born: 849
House: Wessex
Spouse(s): Ealhswith, daughter of Æthelred, ealdorman of the Gaini, and Eadburh of Mercia

Reign: 871 – 899
Brief: Prior to his coronation, Alfred travelled with his father throughout Europe. As the fourth son, it was unlikely that he would ever rule. Each brother succeeded the prior in turn, with Alfred rising to prominence during the reign of Æthelred I. He was in charge of the Wessex military and fought against the Danes in up to ten battles in 870-871, the last at Merton causing the death of Æthelred and the ascension of Alfred to the kingship. The Danes settled around York while Alfred consolidated his rule. In 876, the Danes invaded the interior of England and Alfred was put on the defensive, losing all of his allies to the Viking threat. He fought back starting in 787 by raising an army and attacking Danish strongholds throughout England. Alfred won the battle and forced the conversion of the Danes to Christianity and may have delineated the borders between the two kingdoms around 880. A long peace ensued during which time Alfred reoccupied the former capital of London and began to rebuild the city. Anglo-Saxon kingdoms throughout England submitted to Alfred's authority during this time. Alfred reformed the legal system, the economy, and the status of religion within Wessex and his dependencies. Danish attacks increased in the early 890s but Alfred was prepared this time. He fought them off at every turn and died in 899, probably from Crohn's disease.

Date of Death: 26 October 899
Successor: Edward the Elder

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Andrew II, king of Hungary (1235)
• Horio Tadaharu, daimyo in Japan (1633)

[October 19] John, king of England

Surnamed: "Lackland" (sanz Terre)
Parents: Henry II, king of England, and Eleanor, duchess of Aquitaine
Born: 24 December 1166
House: Plantagenet
Spouse(s): (1) Isabel, daughter of William, earl of Gloucester, and Hawise de Beaumont, then (2) Isabella, daughter of Aymer, count of Angoulême, and Alice of Courtenay
Predecessor: Richard I

Reign: 1199 – 1216
Brief: No other English monarch is less understood than King John. Demonized by romantic sagas such as Robin Hood, and praised as the establisher of the Magna Carta, few of the stories of John's life are entirely true. His rise to power came at the cost of his agnatic senior, Arthur, duke of Brittany, the son of John's elder brother, Geoffrey. When Richard I died, Arthur was to become king, but John seized the throne. In 1202, the king of France declared all John's French possessions to either be forfeit or Arthur's. While Arthur himself was captured in 1203 and died under mysterious circumstances, Normandy was completely lost to the French. By 1204, only Aquitaine remained as an English possession on the continent.

For the next decade, John campaigned and rallied support for his war to retake Normandy. In 1209, John was excommunicated for heavy interference in church lands within England and only reconciled in 1213. The fame of John's reign derives from the First Barons' War that was a direct result of the French wars. At a meeting near Windsor Castle in 1215, King John signed a peace agreement that gave the barons large independent powers from the king. It became the Magna Carta, "Great Charter," but it did not last for long. John contacted the pope who excommunicated the entire baronial assembly, and the Barons' War continued for another year. The king of Scots, Alexander II, and Llywelyn the Great of Wales both joined the barons in the rebellion, but the barons were still losing, so they invited Prince Louis, the French heir, to England and offered him the throne. Louis quickly conquered much of the south while John was in the north, but then began to lose the support of the barons. When John finally died of dysentery in October of 1216, the war only lasted another year. Louis abandoned his claim to the throne at the 1217 Treaty of Lambeth and the Magna Carta was reissued for the reign of the child Henry III.

Date of Death: 19 October 1216
Successor: Henry III

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Urban III, pope of Rome (1187)
• Francesco I, grand duke of Tuscany (1587)
• Louis, king of Portugal (1889)

[July 28] William, count of Flanders

Surnamed: "Clito" (Prince)

Parents: Robert II, duke of the Normans

Date of Birth: 225 October 1102
Royal House: Normandy
Spouse: (1) Sibylla, daughter of Fulk V, count of Anjou, then (2) Joanna of Montferrat
Predecessor: Charles I
Reign: 1127 – 1128
Summary: A tragic member of the Norman dynasty of England, William Clito's fate was never in good hands. His father, Robert II Curthose, was the duke of Normandy and, by right of primogeniture, should have been king of England. But King William I decreed that his eldest son, Robert, would receive the hereditary patrimony of the family while a younger, William, would receive England. A long war ensued during which William II was succeeded by a still-younger brother, Henry I. Henry defeated Robert Curthose at the Battle of Tinchebrai in 1106 and William Clito enters the story at this point. William was placed in the custody of Duke Robert's illegitimate daughter and her husband, Helias, count of Arques. He remained there until 1110 when Henry I demanded the prince be returned to his personal custody. Helias protected the boy and fled, taking him first to Robert de Bellême, an enemy of King Henry I. Two years later, they fled again, this time to Count Baldwin VII of Flanders. By 1118, many Norman counts were upset with Henry's rule and rallied behind Count Baldwin to rebel. William Clito became their cause, since William had the senior claim to the English and Normandy thrones. When Baldwin was injured soon into the campaign, King Louis VI of France took up the cause. The French were decisively defeated by the English at the Battle of Brémule in 1119. The rebellion failed and the young prince returned to Paris. When William Ætheling, the only legitimate son of King Henry I, died in 1120, William became the senior Norman heir to the throne once again. By 1122, a large part of the Norman nobility accepted his claim to the throne. To strengthen his claim, he married the daughter of Count Fulk V of Anjou. Henry appealed to the pope and forced the marriage to be annulled in 1124 because the couple were too closely related. Another rebellion arose that same year and was defeated at the battle of Bourgtheroulde. King Louis VI continued to support the young man into 1127 when he granted him estates in French Vexin near the Norman border. William married the half-sister of the queen to secure their alliance. When Count Charles of Flanders died in 1127, Louis marched into the county and convinced the barons to elect William as their new count.

It took him only two months to secure control over Flanders, but the rebels were supported by the English and a rival, Thierry of Alsace, claimed the county as well. When two baronies declared for Thierry in 1128, William found himself in charge of less than half the county, mostly the southern edge. At the battle of Axspoele, William was able to defeat Thierry and reclaim a lost barony, but it hardly mattered. With the help of his father-in-law, Duke Godfrey of Brabant, he beseiged the city of Aalst with the intention to recapture all of Ghent, but William was wounded in the arm in a fight with a foot soldier. Within a week the wound had grown gangrenous and William died a week after that, attended by his brother-in-law, Helias. William Clito was buried at the Abbey of St Bertin in St Omer. He left no children and his titles in Flanders was taken by Thierry. His father, Robert, remained alive for another six years, a prisoner of King Henry I locked away in Cardiff.

Date of Death: 28 July 1128
Successor: Thierry

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Theodosius II, emperor of Constantinople (450)
• Victor II, pope of Rome (1057)
• Leopold VI, duke of Austria (1230)
• Joseph, king of Spain and Naples
• Charles, king of Sardinia (1849)

[July 26] Offa, king of Mercia

Parents: Thingfrith
Royal House: Mercia
Spouse: Cynethryth
Predecessor: Beornred
Reign: 757 – 796
Summary: Few Anglo-Saxon monarchs are known as well as Offa. A Bretwalda (High King) of England, he rose from relatively humble origins to rule much of modern-day England. He came to the throne following the assassination of Æthelbald in 757. A rival king, Beornred, ruled for a short while before Offa defeated him. Two sub-kingdoms, Hwicce and the Magonsæte both declared independence during the brief civil war, and Offa spent the first year of his reign winning them back. The sub-kingdom of Lindsey also probably fell into Mercian control at around this time. Other than these quick conquests, Offa spent the first five years of his reign solidifying his control over Mercia and Essex. By the early 760s, though, instability in neighboring Kent allowed Offa to step in an chose his own client king. Fighting between Mercia and Kent continued into the 780s with Offa finally becoming undisputed overlord by 785. To end future rebellions, Offa killed off the Kentish royal family and annexed the kingdom to Mercia. Sussex retained its independence for much longer but also fell by the end of the 780s. East Anglia fell into Mercian hands in 794 after Offa had the king beheaded, while in Wessex the king was controlled by Offa's daughter, Eadburh. Only Northumbria seemed to avoid direct overlordship from Offa, but even in the remote north of England, Offa's presence could be felt as King Æthelred I married Offa's daughter, Ælfflæd in 792.

Problems outside of England constantly dogged Offa. The various Welsh kingdoms were a constant bane and at least three times Offa was forced to fight campaigns against Welsh incursions. Offa is thought to have built Offa's Dyke along the Welsh border to keep the Welsh out of England. In Church relations, Offa was a Christian king but Pope Adrian I decided it was time that England receive more direct papal influence. He sent a new papal mission to England, the first since Augustine, to create canon law for the various kingdoms. Offa, often at odds with the Archbishop of Canterbury who was loyal to the Kentish kings, established the Archdiocese of Lichfield as a rival. The archdiocese only ever had a single archbishop. Offa established numerous churches and monasteries, mostly in Mercia. Ultimately, Offa has been considered the greatest king of England before Alfred the Great, and one of the single most unifying characters in early English history, despite the fact that Offa was never driven to unify, only conquer. Mercia was his empire, not England, and he sought to secure his growing kingdom for himself and his children. When he died in 796, he was buried at Bedford and succeeded by his son, Ecgfrith. But the new king lasted only five months and because Offa had been so thorough in his conquest, no other line of Mercian royals could be found. Thus Offa's dynastic legacy ended before it really started, and the throne of Mercia fell to a distant cousin.

Date of Death: 26 July 796
Successor: Ecgfrith

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Jin Chengdi, emperor of China (342)
• Nikephoros I Logothetes, emperor of Constantinople (811)
• Komyo, emperor of Japan (1380)
• Paul II, pope of Rome (1471)
• George IV, king of the United Kingdom (1830)
• Otto, king of Greece (1867)

[July 8] Edgar I, king of England

Surnamed: "The Peaceable"
Parents: Edmund I, king of England, and Ælfgifu of Shaftsbury

Date of Birth: 7 August 943
Royal House: Wessex
Spouse: (1) Æthelflæd, then (2) Wulthryth, then (3) Ælgthryth, daughter of Ordgar
Predecessor: Eadwig
Reign: 959 – 975
Summary: The youngest son of Edmund the Magnificent, it took many years for him to succeed in making a name of himself in England. For his early years, little is known, but he was elected king in contest of his elder brother Eadwig, who was king in the north, in the year 957 when he was only around fourteen years old. A group of nobles supported by Dunstan, a Benedictine monk, elected Edgar king, and Eadwig had to negotiate a division of the kingdom for the final two years of his life. Thus, in East Anglia, a half-brother ruled, while in Wessex and Kent, Eadwig ruled. Edgar ruled Northumbia and Mercia, the two largest components of the realm. When Eadwig died in 959, Edgar inherited the lot of England and kept it unified throughout this reign.


As his first act, Edgar installed Dunstan as the bishop of Worcester. He eventually became archbishop of Canterbury and was canonized. Edgar may have killed his nephew and rival in East Anglia due to love, though historical sources are sparse and historians are conflicted over the matter. The king was crowned at Bath in 973 with his wife, setting a precedent of king-queen coronation in England. He had waited to be crowned for when his reign was at its height. Six kings in Great Britain came to pledge fealty to Edgar at his coronation, including the king of Scots and the king of Strathclyde. Edgar died two years after his formal coronation and was buried at Glastonbury Abbey. His eldest son, Edward, who was probably illegitimate, succeeded him but was later murdered through the assistance of his younger brother, Æthelred. Edgar's reign was the last peaceful and uncontested reign in England until the reign of Henry II.
Date of Death: 8 July 975
Successor: Edward the Martyr

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Pepin, king of Italy (810)
• Eugene III, pope of Rome (1153)
• Gregory XV, pope of Rome (1623)
• William IV, king of the United Kingdom (1837)
• Oscar I, king of Sweden and Norway (1859)

[April 9] Edward IV, king of England

Parents: Richard, duke of York, and Cecily Neville

Date of Birth: 28 April 1442

House: Plantagenet-York

Spouse: Elizabeth, daughter of  Richard Woodville, earl Rivers, and Jacquetta of Luxembourg

Predecessor: Henry VI

Reign: 1461 – 1470, 1471 – 1483

Date of Death: 9 April 1483

Successor: Edward V

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

Jimmu, emperor of Japan (585 BCE)

Zeno, emperor of Constantinople (491)

Constantine, pope of Rome (715)

Benedict VIII, pope of Rome (1024)

William X, duke of Aquitaine (1137)

Lorenzo, patriarch of Florence (1492)

Matei, prince of Wallachia (1654)

William V, king of the Netherlands (1806)

Zog I, king of Albania (1961)

[March 17] Harold I, king of England

Surname: "Harefoot" (The Quick)

Parents: Cnut, king of Denmark and England, and Ælfgifu of Northampton

Date of Birth: circa 1015

House: Denmark

Reign: 1035 – 1040

Predecessor: Cnut

Summary: Harold was never meant to rule anything, especially England. His half-brother, Harthacnut, was the chosen successor of their father when King Cnut died in 1035, but the young king was distracted from claiming all of his birthright. Unable to travel to London for his coronation, Harold went instead, agreeing to act as regent for Harthacnut until the latter's arrival. Godwin, earl of Wessex, disagreed with this decision, but they had little power to stop it. Harold seized the crown in 1036 with the support of his mother, Ælfgifu, and by 1037 Harold was in full control of England.

In 1036, Ælfred Æþeling, the son of the former King Æthelred II, and his brother, Edward, arrived to visit the former queen Emma of Normandy. Fearing a coup, Harold captured Ælfred and blinded him. The prince died within days and Edward fled back to the continent with his mother. They settled first in Flanders and then in Normandy. Evidence suggests that Harold's rule was also contested by the archbishop of Canterbury and that his, Ælfgiful mother was using bribery to win over the nobles to his cause. Harold reign came to a sudden end in 1040 while his brother, Harthacnut, was preparing an invasion from Denmark. Little is known about his cause of death or where he was initially buried. His body was later exhumed, beheaded, and thrown into a swamp after Harthacnut's coronation. The body was later recovered and reburied in a church in Westminster.

Date of Death: 17 March 1040

Successor: Harthacnut

Other Monarchs Who Died Today:

• Marcus Aurelius, emperor of Rome (180)
• Lulach, king of Scots (1058)
• Go-Saga, emperor of Japan (1272)
• Ashikaga Yoshikazu, shogun of Japan (1425)
• Giuliano di Lorenzo, patriarch of Florence (1516)
• William II, king of the Netherlands (1849)

Two States, One King (Divided Rule)

Two years ago last December, I completed my master's dissertation on the topic of dynastic unions. Specifically, I focused on the dynastic union of England and the United Provinces of the Netherlands under King William III and the union of Great Britain (later the United Kingdom) and the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg (later Kingdom of Hanover) under Kings George I-IV and William IV. It was a daunting task with a strong emphasis on ruling two states at the same time. Yet these individuals were only the last British monarchs in a long series of rulers to preside over multiple states simultaneously. Indeed, for a while it was vogue for monarchs to try and collect states, as it were, in order to expand their empire. Some they would fold into their own "mother" state while others would remain under outside control.


England's Bouts of Duality
Let's start this little survey with a look at what Britain has controlled off-and-on throughout its existence. I've already mentioned two so let's chalk them up:

William III, King of England
& Stadtholder of the Netherlands

• The Kingdoms of England, Scotland & Ireland, et al. with The United Provinces of the Netherlands (1689 – 1702)
• Ruler: King William III who was also Stadtholder of the Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders & Overijssel (most of the Netherlands)
• The Dutch Estates General ruled the Netherlands in his stead
• The English Privy Council ruled Britain in his stead
• How'd it start: William III conquered England (sort of) and deposed his father-in-law, thereby taking the crown. He was already stadtholder at the time.
• Fate: Died leaving England in the hands of his sister-in-law Anne and Netherlands in the hands of nobody in particular

• The Kingdom of Great Britain & Ireland, et al. with The Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Electorate of Brunswick (1714 – 1803, 1813 – 1832)
• Rulers: Kings George I, George II, George III, George IV, and William IV who were also hereditary rulers of the region immediately around Hanover in Germany
• The English Privy Council, the Queen, and/or the Prince of Wales ruled Britain in their stead
• The Hanoverian Regency and/or the Prince of Wales ruled Hanover in their stead
• Communication was via a special agency unaffiliated with the British government
• How'd it start: To avoid another Catholic monarch, the British monarchy went to their 52nd choice in the line of succession: an elderly granddaughter of James I. She died and her German son inherited Britain.
• The Kingdom of Great Britain & Ireland became the United Kingdom in 1801
• The Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg became the Kingdom of Hanover in 1814
• Fate: Separate succession laws left Britain in the hands of Queen Victoria and Hanover in the hands of King Ernest Augustus



Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg. Note: Bremen, Verden, Osnabrück, and
Lauenburg were also all dynastic unions. Brunswick -Wolfenbüttel was
a separate possession of a younger branch of the House of Este-Welf.

These are rather late additions, so let's step back into time and see what other dynastic unions existed. Two have already been implied though not mentioned:

• The Kingdom of England with The Kingdom of Ireland (1542 – 1651, 1659 – 1801)
• Rulers: All English monarchs from Henry VIII onwards until 1801
• The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland ruled in their stead
• How'd it start: The Kingdom of Ireland replaced the semi-sovereign and often autonomous Lordship of Ireland which was also presided over by the Lord Lieutenant. Ireland had been partially conquered by Normans in the 12th century and Henry VIII finished the job...mostly.
• Fate: Ireland had little independence in the union and Great Britain and Ireland finally formed a constitutional union in 1801

The Royal Standard of the United Kingdom
(Note: First and Fourth quarters represent England, the
second represents Scotland, and the third Ireland.)

• The Kingdoms of England & Ireland with The Kingdom of Scotland (1603 – 1651, 1660 – 1707)
• Rulers: All English monarchs from James I onwards until 1707
• The Scottish Parliament and Privy Council ruled in their stead
• How'd it start: Elizabeth I died leaving three possible heirs: the most senior—the Scottish king—or one of two squabbling heiresses who broke the queen's rules. She went with the Scotsman.
• Fate: Scotland attempted to end the union but failed and were forced to enter into a constitutional union in 1707

There are dozens of other unions England had with other states throughout its medieval history. Most of these territories were in France. While England very briefly claimed true control over the French throne in the 15th century, I will gloss over that to focus on two other historically more important territories that England once controlled:

Map of France in 1154. Normandy is the pink bit in
the north. Aquitaine is the large peach part in the
middle and south. Note: Brittany (orange on left)
and Anjou (center red) were also dynastic unions.

• The Kingdom of England with The Duchy of Normandy (1066 – 1087, 1106 – 1144, 1150 – 1204 [– Present])
• Rulers: William I, Henry I, Stephen, Henry II, Richard I and John
• A regent and/or Lord Lieutenant ruled Normandy in their stead
• How'd it start: William I of Normandy invaded England and killed his predecessor, Harold II, and deposed the upstart, Edgar II.
• Fate: Conflict with France over sovereignty in Normandy resulted in the French confiscation of Normandy in 1204.
• Today: The Channel Islands, primarily Guernsey and Jersey, remain Crown Dependencies under the name "Duchy of Normandy" and are the last remnant of the once-great duchy. These islands are not a part of the United Kingdom though are administered by it. The Lieutenant Governor of each set of islands rules in the monarch's stead.

• The Kingdom of England with The Duchy of Aquitaine ([1152] 1204 – 1362)
• Rulers: Technically, Eleanor of Aquitaine ruled until 1204, but her husband, Henry II, and sons, Richard I and John, both ruled in her stead many times. Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, and Edward III also ruled.
• A Regent ruled in their stead.
• How'd it start: Henry II married the Aquaitaine duchess, Eleanor, and took her lands for his own.
• Fate: The French got fed up with England not respecting them, so reclaimed their fief. England countered by claiming the French crown. So began the Hundred Years' War. Neither side really could claim the title after that.

Finally, just as a fun aside, the British monarch is still technically in one last dynastic union (not counting the Commonwealth countries) with a tiny little island sitting in the Irish Sea:

The Kingdom of Mann was
once much larger and included
the Western Isles of Scotland

• The Kingdom of England with The Lordship of Mann (1765 – Present)
• Rulers: Every British monarch since George III
• A Lieutenant Governor rules in their stead
• How'd it start: In 1399, Henry IV conquered the Kingdom of Mann from its hereditary ruler. It had previously alternated between Norwegian, Scottish, and English control for centuries. It fell into the Stanley family and, in 1504, they renounced the title "King" in favor of "Lord". In 1765, the Baroness Strange sold the title back to the English crown.
• Fate: Today, the monarch of the United Kingdom is also, separately, the Lord of Mann. It is administered separately as with the Channel Islands (see Duchy of Normandy).

More Problems than an Oversized Chin

The Habsburgs of Austria had their own divided monarchy that, at times, remained divided for long periods of time, but every once in a while, they would recombined to become truly behemoth political entities that would span the breath of Europe. Three long-term unions and one amazingly brief union created a Habsburg empire that still boggles modern minds.

• The Archduchy of Austria with The Kingdoms of Bohemia & Hungary (1438 – 1918)
• Rulers: Various Habsburg monarchs until 1918
• The Habsburg monarchs ruled Bohemia through various means, but rarely directly
• How'd it start: Albert married the daughter of the previous king of both Bohemia and Hungary. He was crowned king of Hungary in 1438 and Bohemia six months later, but never ruled in the latter. The Habsburgs did not firmly establish themselves in either until 1526.
• Fate: Hungary remained a part of Austria-Hungary until 1918 and the monarchy was officially ended on 1921. Bohemia was incorporated into the Austrian Empire in 1806 and became crown land in 1867. It later became half of Czechoslovakia after World War I.

Map of the Ethnic Composition of Austria-Hungary in 1910. Note: Only Austria, Hungary and Bohemia were legal
dynastic unions. Bosnia, Croatia, Dalmatia, Transylvania, Galicia, and Moravia were all artificial monarchies.

Map of the Iberian Peninsula, 1570. Note: Galicia (top left),
Aragon (top right), and Cordoba (bottom center) were all
in dynastic unions with Castile (Spain) during this period.

• The Kingdom of Spain with The Kingdom of Portugal (1560 – 1640)
• Rulers: Philip II of Spain, Philip III and Philip IV
• A Viceroy of Portugal ruled in their stead
• How'd it start: The last obvious heir to the Portuguese throne died leaving it vacant with the Spanish monarch, Philip II, in a prime dynastic, political, and military position to claim it.
• Fate: Fed up with Spanish domination of politics and an obvious loss of their overseas empire, Portuguese revolutionaries deposed Philip IV and installed a native king.

A Map of the Burgundian Inheritance. The lands
dynastically unified to Spain in the Low Countries
were vast and spanned seven modern countries.

• The Kingdom of Spain with The Duchy of Burgundy (1516 – 1555)
• Ruler: Charles I of Spain, also known as Holy Roman Emperor Charles V
• Many different methods were used to rule his empire
• How'd it start: First off, this dynastic union appears very mediocre for all the hype, so let's explain. The Kingdom of Spain at this time did not just include what we think of today as Spain. It also included all of Italy south of Rome and Sicily. He inherited all of this from his mom, though technically she was still alive until 1555. Next, Burgundy refers to a large area that today includes Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg and parts of Germany and France. It was on par in side to Portugal but with much more valuable land. He inherited this lot from his dad, Philip the Handsome, in 1506. In addition, Charles was also an Archduke of Austria, was elected Holy Roman Emperor (which technically means he was King of Italy and Germany), and he also ruled over all the new Spanish possessions overseas. So in literal size, his empire was quite large for a European monarch.
• Fate: Inevitably, he tired of ruling such a large empire. He actually abdicated two years before his death. Spain, Italy, and Burgundy he left to his son, Philip II. The Holy Roman Empire he left to his brother, Ferdinand I.

Danes Among Us

Denmark has led a long history of dual monarchy. Stationed on the small peninsula that divides the North Sea from the Baltic Sea, it is in prime position to claim both the fjords of Norway and Sweden and the flats of Germany. And claim them it did, though not without significant resistance. Two long dynastic unions proved that a small country could still play it large.

• The Kingdom of Denmark with The Kingdoms of Sweden & Norway (1397 – 1523)
• Rulers: Margaret, Erik, Christopher III, Christian I, John and Christian II
• Sweden and Norway maintained regencies in their stead (and sometimes against them)
• How'd it start: Queen Margaret I of Denmark married King Haakon VI of Norway and their son, Olaf III, became king of both in 1380. In 1389, Margaret united Sweden to Denmark and in 1396, Erik of Pomerania was elected the first king of all three realms. The union was formalized the next year via the Treaty of Kalmar.
• Fate: Almost immediately, the Swedes came into conflict with the Danes over Danish wars in northern Germany. Sweden elected an anti-king, Charles VIII, who was deposed and restored numerous times. Eventually Sweden would elect Gustav Vasa as king and secede from the union permanently, only to become involved in their own German wars.

The Kalmar Union. Note: Lower Finland was a dependency of Sweden while
Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, the Shetland Islands, and the Orkneys
were dependencies of Norway. Schleswig-Holstein in Germany was in a
dynastic union with Denmark throughout this time.

• The Kingdom of Denmark with The Kingdom of Norway (1536 – 1816)
• Rulers: All kings of Denmark until 1816
• Norway maintained a regency in their stead
• How'd it start: With the fall of the Kalmar Union (see above), Denmark retained Norway, though not without a fight. Denmark's dynastic claim over Norway was stronger, and Norway was unable to resist Danish domination to the same degree as Sweden.
• Fate: Norway was traded to Sweden following the Napoleonic Wars and, after a brief war between Norway and Sweden, the two countries entered into their own dynastic union that lasted until 1905, when Norway finally became an sovereign kingdom once more.

Poling your Weight Around

Poland, too, was the senior partner in a long dynastic union. While Poland jumped in and out of other unions throughout its history, it's union with one partner withstood the test of time.

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, 1618. The sheer size of this dynastic
union is unbelievable. Livonia (gray), Courland (greenish), and Prussia (peach)
were vassal states of Poland-Lithuania but not in dynastic union with it.

• The Kingdom of Poland with The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1382 – 1795)
• Rulers: All kings of Poland until the dissolution of the monarchy in 1795
• It is unknown how these monarchs ruled both realms
• How'd it start: Grand Duke Ladislas II of Lithuania married "King" Hedwig of Poland. When she died, Ladislas became ruler of both. 
• Fate: Sigismund II constitutionally unified the two lands in 1572, though both retained autonomy. The monarchy became elective after that date, though it stayed in the Vasa family of Sweden for many generations. The entire monarchy fell apart in the French Revolutionary Wars and its fractions were given to Russia, Prussia and Austria.

Conclusion

Almost every monarchic state in Europe at one time or another controlled another state. France was often the largest player, but its attachments were almost always geographically close to France and also geographically smaller. Spain ruled vast lands around the Mediterranean for many years, including much of southern Italy. Sweden and Denmark both had their hands on significant lands in Northern Germany for awhile. In the end, most dynastic unions have to come to an end. The junior partner either joins the senior partner in a constitutional union or the two separate permanently. Today, quasi-states such as Mann and the Channel Islands are exceptions rather than the rule.

Attempts to force dynastic unions, such as that of the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) and United Provinces (Netherlands) after the Napoleonic Wars, generally fail. The Prussian and Sardinian technique of blatant conquest and monarchic overthrow, such as in the unifications of Germany and Italy, seem to work better. The other technique, largely used by France and Spain, of slowly marrying into title-holding families and inheriting the titles also works better.

Nonetheless, throughout history most monarchies have experienced periods of dynastic union and it is an interesting, albeit often overlooked, aspect of nation-building that I find absolutely riveting.

Damsels in Distress (Disney Films: Part I)

As a fun little dynastology topic that I have been putting off, I want to analyze all the canon Disney Theatrical Animated Features released since Snow White in 1937 and each film's monarchical style. I hope you enjoy and I promise, my critique of the dynastological aspects of the films do not have any baring on my enjoyment of the film. I am a huge fan of Disney's canon and hope one day to have the whole series.

This first set of analyzes will revolve around the first twenty-two episodes up through The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh. The majority of Disney films in this period do not have monarchical concepts, but a few do including some of the most famous princess films. Note: Numbers beside film-names represent that films sequence number according Walt Disney Animation Studios.

 
Princess Snow White

 1. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) – The first in a long chain of Disney princess films that continue to this day, Snow White also sets the stage for one of the two modes that a "princess" becomes a princess. For Snow White, her method is ancestry. Snow White is the (apparently) only daughter of the late king. When the king died, it seems that her step-mother, called the Queen, usurped the kingdom from Snow White. All was well and good until Snow White became "fairest of them all". The Queen attempted to murder Snow White and she fled into exile. A while later, the Queen discovered Snow White still lived and, through a power struggle, both were killed. Snow White, however, was rejuvenated following the kiss of a rather mysterious man simply named Prince. Snow White and the Prince ride off toward the castle and "live happily ever after". Talk about stereotypical and unhelpful. The only thing that can be assumed at the end of this film is that the Prince is going to become the King suo uxoris—by right of his wife. That wife, it is assumed, is or will be Snow White. This is all left out, though, as is the identity of Snow White's parents and why Snow White didn't become queen after her father's death. Also, who ruled the kingdom once the evil Queen was gone? Surely some time passed and, it was assumed, that Snow White was dead either by the woodsman's axe or the Queen's poison. Surely someone would have claimed the throne since the Queen's passing. So many things left unsaid that this film, unfortunately, does upset me due to its simplicity. Other Disney films fare much better in the end. 

 
Bambi, Prince of the Forest

 5.  Bambi  (1942) – Throughout this film, Bambi is called a prince. His father is known as the Great Prince of the Forest establishing some form of monarchy. With Bambi being the Great Prince's son, he is established as the heir to the dynasty. This concept is little expanded on throughout the film, but the Great Prince does come to the rescue twice to save Bambi from danger, suggesting that Bambi is important to the continuity of the dynasty. The story ends with Bambi overlooking the birth of his children with his father, and then his father turning and walking away, suggesting that Bambi will soon be established as the next Great Prince. The dynastological undertones of this story are extremely strong, but the lack of conversation and depth in the film constricts its ability to tell its dynastological story.

 
Cinderella 

12.  Cinderella  (1950) – The direct contrast to Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Cinderella tells the tale of a maiden-turned-princess, Disney's other favorite form of "princess" to princess story. Basically, Prince Charming needs a wife because he currently shows no interest in getting married. The king wants a son, dosh garnit! So he invites every maiden in the kingdom to flaunt themselves in front of Charming. Dynastologically, this is already becoming improbable. Royalty-peasantry marriages are generally taboo even today and were much moreso back in the Middle Ages, when this story takes place. Even marrying nobility could be seen as damaging to the legitimacy of a dynasty, certainly marrying the gentry or peasantry was just ludicrous. Generally, that lot was reserved as mistresses or simple concubines. Anyway, Charming meets Cinderella, the wealthy heiress of a man whose widow and step-daughters treat the young woman as a common household servant. Cinderella's fairy godmother enchants Cinderella into basically becoming a noblewoman, but only until midnight! Upon her midnight flight, Cinderella leaves behind a glass shoe that Charming uses to find the young woman again. How only one woman in all of the kingdom fits Cinderella's shoe size is beyond me. Buying shoes for her must really stink. After some quarreling with the family, Cinderella finally manages to try on the show, which fits, and become a princess through her marriage to Prince Charming, a prince by blood. Thus, as Charming's father wished, Cinderella fills in the role of wife and mother to Charming and the many children she will undoubtedly have to fulfill her husband's and father-in-law's wishes.

 
The King and Queen of Hearts 

13.  Alice in Wonderland  (1951) – In Alice's imagination, she falls into the Kingdom of Wonderland, as it is eventually established. Wonderland is ruled by what appears to be a Queendom. Upon further analysis, though, there is a king and, since this was written in Victorian times, it is likely that the king was the suo jure monarch while the queen was just a heavy-handed consort. In either case, the Queen of Hearts is quite obviously the power behind the throne. The only other possibility, and it is a stretch, is that the king and queen are co-monarchs much like William III and Mary II were, but this seems unlikely. The parallels between the large Queen of Hearts and pompous Victoria and the twitchy King of Hearts and powerless Prince Albert are hard to miss. No further description of the monarchy can be found in the film.

 
Princess Aurora 

16.  Sleeping Beauty  (1959) – Disney's third foray into princess land returns the princess technique to that of Snow White: the hereditary princess. Unlike Snow White and Cinderella, however, Sleeping Beauty demonstrates a high amount of dynastological information. Aurora is born as the only child to her parents, King Stefan and Queen Leah. Soon after her birth, she is betrothed to Prince Philip, the son of King Hubert, in a dynastic alliance to unite the two kingdoms together. Thus, the story establishes that Aurora is the heiress of Stefan and implies that she will become Queen suo jure—in her own right. It also makes clear that Philip is the heir of Hubert and will become King in his own right. Thus there will become a dynastic union between the kingdoms, hopefully made permanent once the couple produce children. Years later, when the two meet, they fall in love, but Philip believes Aurora to be a peasant girl rather than the princess in exile. This suggests that the love is not meant to be, since, as mentioned in the Cinderella critique, royalty did not marry peasantry. In fact, Hubert brings this up when Philip reveals the news that he no longer wants to marry Aurora but rather this strange peasant woman. Hubert denies Philip the right to marry the peasant, for reasons mentioned above. Meanwhile, as with Snow White, Aurora is killed by a spinning wheel but may be revived if kissed by Philip. The evil fairy, Maleficent, captures and locks up Philip (why she did not just kill him, I know not). Philip escapes and kills Maleficent and then awakens Aurora, and they all live happily ever after. Out of all of Disney's princess films, this one is probably the best at properly portraying dynastic laws. There is a prearranged marriage for dynastic purposes. Hubert denies Philip the right to marry outside his class (or his betrothal). Both parties are already princes(ses) in their own rights. Frankly, I like the story too, even though Aurora is a really two-dimensional character. Definitely a well-done dynastological story.

 
Arthur, King of the Britons

 18. The Sword in the Stone (1963) – The treatment of the King Arthur story is bound to be controversial since there in all likelihood was no historical king by that name. Regardless, the story behind this version of the legend is that England is in the Dark Ages because Uther Pendragon died without naming his heir. When he died, a magical sword appeared in London embedded in a stone and anvil. The crux: who ever pulls out the sword becomes king of England. Quite an odd succession technique if you ask me. Regardless, Wart (aka Arthur) eventually pulls out the sword and becomes king. The story pretty much ends there, with a short epilogue explaining how Arthur becomes king and brings England out of the Dark Ages. Nothing is explained about his parentage (like that he is Uther's son), nothing about why he wasn't king to begin with, and nothing about his continuing legacy, except how famous he will become. Honestly, for a film about King Arthur, I would expect more regarding monarchy and less about preteen angst.

 
Mowgli and King Louie 

19. The Jungle Book (1967) – Besides the context of British India during the reign of Queen/Empress Victoria, "King" Louie is the only other monarchical figure in this allegorical story. He acts more like a kingpin—a Jabba the Hutt-like figure—rather than a literal king, making his placement in the dynastological context that of a non-dynastic leader and nothing more.

Richard I the Lionheart, King of England

 

John, Prince of England
21. Robin Hood (1973) – This film's dynastological context is quite obvious. Prince John is the little brother of King Richard the Lionheart. Robin Hood, a local outlaw, wants to ensure that Richard's rights in England are retained against the king's usurping little brother. He does this by "stealing from the rich and giving to the poor". John, whenever reminded of his mother, cries "Mother!" and sucks his thumb. Basically, all this is fun but completely contradicts history. Richard wasn't in the Holy Land by this time but imprisoned in Austria. John had usurped the regency of England in this time but the high taxes that Robin Hood fought against were because John was raising funds to ransom his brother from Austrian custody, a fact that Robin Hood would probably have known. When Richard left again in 1196, he left the government in the care of John, who he had named his heir despite the fact that John had a senior-line nephew, Arthur, the son of his elder deceased brother Geoffrey. Richard, in the end, trusted his youngest brother more than his nephew to lead England. Concerning Prince John's constant wailing about his mother, all was well and good. His mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, was still alive and well, although quite old. She acted often as John's ambassador and served as Richard's regent prior to John usurpation. John only made a grab for the regency after his mother had left to negotiate for Richard's release in Austria.

The films 2. Pinocchio (1940), 3.  Fantasia (1940), 4.  Dumbo  (1941), 6.  Saludos Amigos  (1942), 7.  The Three Caballeros   (1944), 8.  Make Mine Music   (1946), 9. Fun and Fancy Free   (1947),  10.  Melody Time   (1948), 11.  The Adventures of Ichabod & Mr. Toad   (1949), 15.  Lady and the Tramp  (1955) , 20. Aristocats (1970) and 22. The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh (1977) do not appear to have any significant monarchical figures or dynastological concepts. 14.  Peter Pan   (1953) also does not show any significant concepts but initially takes place in Edwardian Great Britain (1901 to 1910) placing it in a monarchical context. Likewise, 17. One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961) takes place during an unknown time in British history, probably sometime in the reign of George V from 1910 until 1936 but shows no other monarchical tendencies.

 
Limited Edition Thomas Kinkade painting of Peter Pan & Company soaring over Edwardian London to Neverland